
Class —j—£JA(J_0 



Book. 



Copyright 1^"_ 



COPVRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



ELEMENTS 



OF 



RAILROAD TRACK 

AND 

CONSTRUCTION 



BY 

WINTER L WILSON 

PROFE330R OF RAILROAD ENGINEBRINQ, LEHIGH UNIVERSITY 



FIRST EDITION 
FIRST THOUSAND 



NEW YORK 

JOHN WILEY & SONS 

LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED 

1908 






LIBRARY of CONGRESS 

SLP 18, W08 



Copyright, 1908, by Winter L. Wilson 



M 



2riH» 0riptttifir l^reBfl 
%ab?rt iSntmmonb and CHontftang 



PREFACE 



In this volume no attempt has been made to treat the 
subjects of railroad track and construction with any con- 
siderable amount of detail, but rather to present a few 
of the fundamental principles in such manner that the 
inexperienced engineering student can form a general 
idea of the subjects. There are a number of excellent 
treatises on track which go into the subject with a wealth 
of detail and a thoroughness of discussion which is of 
immense value to the maintenance-of-way engineer with 
some experience; but, unfortunately, these books are 
not suitable for class-room work, both on account of the 
student not being able to appreciate the value of the 
details and also on account of the impossibility of reading 
these books in the time usually given to such subjects 
in an engineering course. Details of practice can be 
much more readily learned and appreciated from actual 
experience. There is not much time in the four years 
of an engineering course that can economically be given 
to the details of practice, but it is essential that the 
student should understand the fundamental principles 
of the subjects. In this volume some of the general 
principles of track and of the part of railroad construction 
with which the young engineer may come in contact 
early in his experience are presented. • 

The author wishes to thank Prof. L. D. Conkling for 
his valuable assistance in preparing this book. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I. History of Railroads in the United States 1 

Art. I. Development of Railroads 1 

II. Permanent Way 7 

Art. II. Ballast 7 

" III. Cross-Ties and Tie Plates 22 

" IV. Railroad Rails 53 

" V. Rail Joints 68 

" VI. Railroad Spikes 83 

III. Turnouts 92 

Art. VII. Switches 92 

" VIII. Frogs 100 

" IX. Crossovers. Switch Attachments 108 

IV. Sidetracks, Yards, Terminals, Signals 123 

Art. X. Sidetracks and Yards 123 

" XI. Water Supply for Locomotives 132 

" XII. Signals 135 

V. Maintenance of Way 144 

Art. XIII. Organization of Maintenance ^f Way- 
Forces 144 

" XIV. Section Tools and Outfit 149 

XV. Track Signs 175 

'' XVI. The Work Train 182 

'' XVII. Miscellaneous 193 

'' XVIII. Track Inspection 201 

VI. Railroad Construction 206 

Art. XIX. The Engineer Corps 206 

XX. Cuts and Fills 215 

VII. Trestles 240 

Art. XXI. Framed Trestles 240 

'' XXII. Pile Trestle Bents 252 

" XXIII. Trestle Superstructure 254 

VIII. Culverts 267 

Art. XXIV. Drainage 267 

" XXV. Culverts 273 

IX. The Subgrade 289 

Art. XXVI. Roadbed in Fills 289 

" XXVII. Roadbed in Cuts 293 

" XXVIII. Ditches 297 

XXIX. Fences 299 

" XXX. Cattle Guards and Passes. Road Cross- 
ings 307 

Index 315 

V 



CHAPTER I. 

HISTORY OF RAILROADS IN THE 
UNITED STATES. 



Article I. 
DEVELOPMENT OF RAILROADS. 

1. Definition of Term Railroad. — The terms rail- 
road and railway are synonymous and are about the 
same age. At present the term railroad is used in 
the United States Bnd railway in England; but there 
is a growing tendency in the United States to use the 
term railway in connection with trolley lines. Formerly 
the term railroad, or railway, included the roadbed, 
ballast, ties, rails, rail- joints, spikes, switches and switch 
mechanism, collectively called permanent way^ and the 
signals; but in common and accepted usage the meaning 
of the term has been extended to include not only the 
permanent way and signals, but everything necessary 
to its operation, such as the rolling stock and buildings, 
including stations, roundhouses, shops, etc., and also 
all other property of the operating company, such as 
stocks, bonds, and other securities. 

2. Development of Railroads. — The railroad of today 
has developed from the tramway. The first tramways 

1 1 



2 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

consisted of trams of wood or flat stones laid flush with 
the surface of the road; these developed to stone and 
wooden stringers covered with strap-iron, and finally 
to the permanent way now in use. The date of the first 
tramway is not known; they were designed so that 
horses could pull heavier loads with less effort, the wheels 
being plain, or without flanges. In 1789, edge rails 
were introduced, the wheel running on the upper edge and 
haying flanges. The motive power on the first tram- 
ways was horses;* but as the rail was developed and 
became stronger, heavier cars could be used and some- 
thing stronger and faster than horses was needed. Some 
of the tramways were operated, their length being short, 
by means of a stationary engine winding up a rope on 
a drum, the cars running back by gravity. 

3. History of the Locomotive Engine. — James Watt, 
1736-1819, for many years worked on the problem of 
perfecting an apparatus which would draw wagons 
on the common highway, and patented a locomotive 
carriage in 1784. Watt was an advocate of the low- 
pressure steam-engine, which proved unsuitable for the 
purpose. In 1802, an Englishman, Trevithick, built 
a high-pressure locomotive. It worked, but the ve- 
locity was low and the adhesion of the wheels to the rails 
was poor, so a system of rack rails was used. George 
Stephenson, 1781-1848, made a successful trial of a 
traveling engine worked by steam, over a tram road be- 
tween the colliery and the port, at Killingworth, England, 
in 1814. The exhaust of this engine opened directly 
into the air, and people along the line objected to the 
* See Railroad Gazette, Sept. 22, 1905. 



HISTORY OF RAILROADS IN THE UNITED STATES. 3 

clouds of condensed steam, so Stephenson tried the ex- 
periment of turning the exhaust into the stack; thus 
by accident he discovered that he could double the orig- 
inal speed of three miles per hour. Stephenson made 
many other improvements, such as increasing the weight 
over the driving wheels in order to obtain better adhesion, 
and demonstrated that the locomotive engine was to be 
the motive power of the future. 

4. The First Railroad. — Stephenson then became 
engineer of the Stockton and Darlington Railroad, which 
was opened on Sept. 27, 1825, and was the first railroad 
to carry both passengers and goods by steam power. 
It was originally intended that the wagons should be 
pulled by horses. The locomotive used on this road 
could run seven miles per hour on the level places. As 
is usually the case with new ideas, public opinion was 
greatly against locomotives and predicted that a speed 
of fifteen miles per hour could never be obtained in this 
way. Stephenson, however, was of a different opinion. 
He continued his experiments and influenced others to 
begin similar work. In 1829, the Stockton and Darling- 
ton Railroad offered a premium of $2500.00 for a loco- 
motive that would not cost more than $2700.00, that 
would draw three times its own weight, and reach a 
speed of ten miles per hour. A competition was held in 
October, 1829, and five locomotives were entered. The 
Rocket, manufactured by Stephenson, weighed seven 
and one-half tons, and pulled forty-four tons at the 
rate of fourteen miles per hour. Without the load, the 
Rocket made thirty-five miles per hour. 

5. Railroads in the United States. — The first rail- 



4 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

road built in the United States was at Quincy, Mass., 
in 1825. It was five miles long and ran between a stone 
quarry and an ocean pier. The rails were partly of 
wooden longitudinal stringers covered with strap-iron, 
and partly of stringers resting on cross-ties. * 

The second railroad in the United States was built in 
1827, at Mauch Chunk, Pa., and ran between Mauch 
Chunk and Summit Hill, a distance of nine miles. Coal 
cars were run over it by gravity and were pulled back 
empty by horses. 

6. First Locomotive in the United States.— In 1828, 
the Delaware and Hudson Railroad Company sent their 
engineer, Horatio Allen, 1802-1889, to England to in- 
spect the locomotives of th6 Stockton and Darlington 
Railroad. Allen ordered a locomotive from a firm in 
Stourbridge, England. This locomotive had a lion 
painted on the front and was known as the ^^Stourbridge 
Lion.'' In 1829, this locomotive arrived in New York 
and was sent to Honesdale, Pa., and on August 9, 1829, 
it was put on the track and, with Horatio Allen as 
engineer, it was run six miles over the Delaware and 
Hudson Railroad. There were several timber trestles 
on the road, and as they were thought to be too weak to 
support the locomotive, the locomotive was abandoned 
temporarily. This was the first trip made by a locomo- 
tive in the United States. Allen lived for sixty years 
after this incident, and at the time of his death, Dec. 31, 
1889, there were over 150,000 miles of steam roads in 
this country. 

7. Locomotives in the United States. — The next 
experiment at locomotive running was made on the 



HISTORY OF RAILROADS IN THE UNITED STATES. 5 

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1830, by Peter Cooper, 
who took a stationary engine, mounted it on a flat car, 
connected it with the wheels by means of cranks, and by 
putting a bellows on the firebox, succeeded in making a 
trip at fifteen miles per hour. By this time the great 
success of the Rocket had become known and a foundry 
at West Point, N. Y., was engaged in building loco- 
motives. One was built for a railroad in South Caro- 
lina, and in 1832 another was built and put on the Mo- 
hawk and Hudson Railroad. This road claims to have 
run the first passenger train in the United States, in 
1833. 

8. Miles of Railroad in the United States. — As 
stated in ^ 5, the first railroad in the United States was 
built in 1825, and the second in 1827. By 1830, 122 
miles of railroad had been completed and 154 miles w^ere 
in course of construction. The railroads forming this 
mileage were the Delaware and Hudson, Baltimore and 
Ohio, Baltimore and Susquehanna, Camden and Amboy, 
Mohawk and Hudson, and the South Carolina Railroad, 
which was the first railroad to have 100 miles of con- 
tinuous track in operation. All of these railroads were 
commenced before the trial of the Rocket, with the in- 
tention of using horses for motive force. They were not 
built wdth the idea of growing into a system of railroads, 
mth the possible exception of the Baltimore and Ohio 
Railroad, but were built where traffic demanded easier 
transportation to central points, being for way-traffic 
solely. After the success of the Rocket railroads began 
to develop in an increasing ratio until they formed the 
vast systems which now join the different parts of the 



6 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



United States. The following table shows the growth 
of railroads in the United States: 



TABLE I. 





Single 


Second 


Third 


Fourth 


Yards and 


Total 


Year. 


Track. 


Track. 


Track. 


Track. 


Sidings. 


Track. 




Miles. 


Miles. 


Miles. 


Miles. 


Miles. 


Miles. 


1830 


122 












1840 


2,816 












1850 


9,015 








. , 




1860 


30,600 








. . 




1870 


52,850 


, , 










1880 


93,530 


. . 






. . 




1890 


161,400 












1900 


193,346 


12,151 


1,094 


829 


52,153 


259,573 


1906 


224,363 


17,936 


1,766 


1,280 


73,761 


319,106 



CHAPTER II. 
PERMANENT WAY. 



Article II. 

BALLAST. 

9. Function of Ballast. — The main function of 
ballast is to keep the track in true line and surface. The 
weight of the engine and train comes on the rails, is 
carried to the ties by' the rails, and the pressure on the 
ties should be uniformly distributed over the top of the 
subgrade by the ballast, thus causing the pressure per 
unit of area on the subgrade to be so small that the 
track will be firmly supported. Ideal ballast should 
have the following properties: 

1. Retain no water. 

2. Give a firm support to the tie. 

3. Distribute the pressure over the subgrade. 

4. Tamp easily. 

5. Not form dust. 

6. Not allow weeds to grow. 

7. Low cost. 

Ballast should allow the water that falls upon it to 
drain away quickly, thus preventing the premature 

7 



8 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

decay of the ties and the softening of the subgrade. It 
should give a firm support to the tie and prevent the tie 
from moving laterally. If ballast drains readily, it can 
be worked during the wet season and in winter, and 
prevents the heaving of the track by frost in the spring 
of the year. Ballast should not allow the growth of 
weeds or form dust in dry weather: Weeds aid in re- 
taining moisture and in causing the ties to decay quicker, 
and a dusty track is not only very disagreeable to pas- 
sengers, but is injurious to the rolling stock, particularly 
the journals. 

10. Materials Used for Ballast. — The materials most 
generally used for ballast are as follows: 

1. Broken stone. 

2. Slag. 

3. Gravel. 

4. Cinders. 

5. Sand. 

6. Special materials. 

7. Subsoil. 

They conform to the above desired qualities in the 
order named, broken stone being the best. 

11. Broken Stone Ballast. — Broken stone makes the 
best ballast, and is commonly called ^^ stone ballast,'' 
or ^^ rock ballast." It distributes the pressure over the 
subgrade better than any other form of ballast, the 
pieces of stone fitting together and acting almost like 
masonry. The area of support increases with the depth 
of the ballast, and at a less depth than any other ballast 
the pressure from the ties is distributed uniformly over 
the subgrade. It forms an excellent bed for the tie, 



PERMANENT WAY. 9 

prevents lateral movement of the tie, and water drains 
out readily, thus keeping the subgrade dry, and has a 
minimum tendency to cause the tie to decay. Stone 
ballast is not as easy to work as some other kinds of 
ballast, but it holds better than any other kind and can 
be more readily worked in wet or freezing weather, and 
despite its higher first cost and the difficulty of handling 
it, stone ballast is the most economical ballast for heavy 
traffic. When carefully dressed, it presents the neatest 
appearance and forms the least dust, which makes it 
particularly desirable for railroads that have a large 
passenger traffic. 

12. Size of Stone for Ballast. — Maintenance of 
way engineers differ as to the size to which the stone shall 
be broken for ballast. A few advocate stone that will 
pass through a 3J-inch ring, believing that a smaller 
size will retain too large a proportion of fine material and 
become too hard and compact. Others specify stone 
that will pass through a 1-inch ring, because it will tamp 
even, give a smooth surface and work easily. These 
sizes always allude to the largest size allowed, it being 
understood that smaller sizes go with them. It is some- 
times specified that all the stone shall pass through a 
larger ring (from 1 inch to 3^ inches) and none through a 
Smaller ring (J tcf 1 inch) . All engineers agree that no 
loam or dirt should be allowed, as it would prevent proper 
drainage, tend to decay the ties, cause dust to form, and 
grass and weeds to grow; but many engineers prefer a 
small proportion of stone dust to be mixed with the 
ballast and to be used on the surface as much as possible. 
When no fine stone is allowed, the ballast must be handled 



10 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

with ballast-forks, which allows the finer material to 
sift out in handling. 

13. Laying and Depth of Stone Ballast. — When the 
ballast varies in size, the larger stones as much as pos- 
sible should be placed in the bottom, as shown at B, 
Fig. 1, which will give the best drainage possible. This 
is very difficult in most cases, however, on account of 
the ballast being dumped alongside the track from cars 
after the track has been spiked together, and the method 
of putting the ballast under the track allows very little 
chance of sorting it into different sizes, and it will be 
poor economy to go to much expense to arrange the 




Fig. 1. 

bottom stones, particularly when the subgrade has been 
properly made, compacted, and shaped. 

Stone ballast is the most expensive ballast in first 
cost, and it is poor economy to make it too shallow — a 
depth of twelve inches below the bottom of the tie is the 
minimum that should be used, and for railroads with 
heavy traffic a depth of eighteen inches below the bottom 
of the tie is the minimum that should be used. 

14. Cross-section of Stone Ballast. — The standard 
plans for the cross-section of the ballast vary on differ- 
ent railroads, and sometimes on the same railroad there 
will be different cross-sections for different classes of 
track, there being a distinction made between main line 



PERMANENT WAY. 11 

and branches. Some specify a rounded shoulder for the 
top of the side slope of the ballast at six inches from the 
end of the tie, as at A, Fig. 1. The Pennsylvania R. R. 
slopes the ballast directly from the outer top corner of 
the tie. The main points specified are as follows: 
(1) The depth of ballast between the bottom of the tie 
and the top of subgrade at the center of the track; (2) 
the distance of the toe of slope B out from the center 
line; (3) the point A at which the slope begins; and 
(4) the shape of the slope. 

The position of the point A is of doubtful importance. 
An important function of the ballast is to keep the track 
in alinement. This is obtained mainly through the hold 
that the ballast takes upon the bottom and sides of the 
tie. There is undoubtedly some resistance to lateral 
movement obtained from ballast placed at the end of the 
tie, but this presuma1)ly does not amount to much, as a 
number of standard plans show the ballast sloping 
directly from the end of the tie. 

15. Dressing the Slopes of Ballast. — After the track 
has been surfaced, placed in full service, and resurfaced 
after a sufficient amount of use to insure that it will re- 
main in surface and alinement for a reasonable length of 
time, the toe of slope of the ballast should 
be dressed to true parallel lines on each side 
of the track. This is best done by stretch- 




ing a string and laying the outer and larger ^^'^ 
stones by hand. If these stones are laid with Fig. 2. 
a bottom width of about six inches and to 
the true slope as shown in Fig. 2, it will be possible to dress 
the balance of the slope of the ballast to a true surface 



12 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

with the ordinary tools of the track gang. This adds 
greatly to the neatness of the roadbed. When there is 
more ballast than is required for the standard cross- 
section, it is customary to round the outer slope or to 
extend the toe of slope B sufficiently to use all the 
ballast and maintain an uniform shape. 

i6. Rock for Ballast. — Any rock that will not dis- 
integrate under the action of the weather and will not 
break up under wear and tamping will do for ballast; 
viz., trap rock, granite, hard limestone, etc. The ac- 
cessibility of the supply to the point of demand will 
often influence the choice of rock for ballast. A large 
railroad system may either operate its own plants at 
convenient points, or contract with private parties at 
these points: The amount required will govern this to a 
great extent. In case the railroad company contracts 
for its ballast, it is usually delivered on board the cars 
(f. o. b.) at the quarry, and an inspector will probably 
be placed at the quarry to watch the quality of the stone 
crushed, as very few quarries have a uniform quality of 
rock throughout, particularly limestone near the surface 
of the ground. 

17. Relative Value of Stone Ballast. — Stone ballast 
retains less water, gives a firmer support to the tie, 
holding it in surface longer, distributes the pressure over 
the subgrade, forms less dust than any other form of 
ballast. On the other hand, it cuts the tie, thereby aid- 
ing in its decay ; it is hard to tamp, making it expensive 
to make tie renewals, and has a greater first cost; but 
everything considered, it is the best form of ballast now 
in use. 



PERMANENT WAY. 13 

i8. Slag Ballast. — Slag of the right composition when 
broken to the proper size makes a ballast which com- 
pares very favorably with rock ballast, but its use is re- 
stricted to certain localities convenient to furnaces. 
Slag varies greatly in its suitability for ballast, owing both 
to its composition and the manner of handling it while in 
a melted condition. Slag should contain no free lime 
and should be hard and solid, with a vitrified or glassy ap- 
pearance. A porous slag will disintegrate under the action 
of the elements and break up when tamped, and after a 
time the particles will cement together, forming a mass 
that is very difficult to handle when resurfacing the road. 
If the slag in its molten condition is dumped in a thick 
mass, the surface will be solid and vitrified, but the in- 
terior will be quite porous and vmfit for ballast. If the 
slag is dumped so that it spreads into a thin sheet before 
cooling, it will be vitrified and solid throughout and can 
then be broken up into good ballast. This is usually at- 
tained by dumping it at the top of a steep slope over 
which it spreads. 

Furnaces are usually glad to get rid of slag, therefore 
if the railroad finds a conveniently situated furnace 
making a slag containing no free lime and dumped so as ' 
not to be porous, the first cost of the ballast is in break- 
ing it to the proper size and loading it on cars. 

19. Relative Value of Slag Ballast. — Slag ballast is 
handled with forks and placed under the track in exactly 
the same manner as broken stone. As stated in ^ 18, 
the properties of good slag ballast correspond very closely 
to those of broken stone ballast, excepting that it has a 
greater tendency to cut and injure the tie. Some track- 



14 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

men claim that slag ballast requires more tamping than 
broken stone, and also a greater tendency to make the 
ties decay, and that it corrodes the rails. This can 
hardly be appreciable if care is taken to see that the slag 
contains no free lime or chemicals which cause the slag 
to disintegrate. Slag ballast should be laid with a thick- 
ness of twelve to eighteen inches below the bottom of the 
tie, the same as stone ballast. 

In view of the great care required and difficulty ex- 
perienced in obtaining slag of the right kind for ballast, 
and its limited use as ballast, it in reality ranks third in 
importance and comes after gravel ballast. 

20. Gravel Ballast. — The third variety of ballast in 
T[ 10 is gravel ballast, but the relative rank of gravel 
ballast depends upon the quality of the gravel. In 
localities where there is no stone for ballast and there is a 
plentiful supply of gravel, when the gravel is well washed 
and assorted, gravel ballast easily ranks first. On the 
other hand, when the gravel is shoveled up and used with- 
out proper cleaning and assorting, it makes a poor ballast, 
but little better than a sand ballast, or fifth in rank. 

Gravel occurs in two forms of deposit; viz., in banks 
and in the beds of streams. Bank-gravel consists of 
more or less rounded stones of varying sizes, mixed usu- 
ally with sand or clay or both sand and clay found in 
deposits in places which in former ages was the bed of 
a stream. Stream-gravel is found in the beds of exist- 
ing streams, and the pebbles forming the gravel are more 
rounded than those in bank-gravel and do not pack to- 
gether when tamped as well as the sharper^ more ang- 
ular, bank-gravel. 



PERMANENT WAY. 15 

In many cases a deposit of bank-gravel is found in 
which the pebbles are the proper size for ballast and the 
proportion of sand and clay or loam is so small that it 
makes a fair ballast without any manipulation other 
than stripping off the surface soil, the gravel being loaded 
on cars by steam shovels or otherwise, and distributed 
and used as ballast. It is deposits such as just described 
that cause gravel baUast to rank low as a ballast. Even 
the best of such deposits will contain enough sand, clay, 
or fine material to affect the quality of the ballast, and 
depending upon the proportion of such fine material the 
ballast will retain water, give a poor support to the tie, 
cause the tie to decay more readily, will not distribute 
the pressure over the subgrade so readily, and will form 
dust and cause weeds and grass to grow; but it will tamp 
easily and is cheap. 

21. Washed Gravel. — ^In order to make the best 
ballast possible out of gravel, some railroad companies 
have established washing plants at their gravel beds. 
The Lake Shore and Michigan Southern R. R. has two 
plants in operation for washing gravel for ballast,* being 
the pioneer in this work. The gravel is loaded on the 
cars by a steam shovel; the loaded cars are run over a 
hopper into which the raw gravel is dumped ; the gravel 
is conveyed from the hopper to the top of the washer by 
a Link-Belt conveyor; the raw gravel and water are 
discharged together on a flume six feet wide and eight 
feet long, the water being delivered through an eight-inch 
pipe to which is attached a special nozle which spreads 
the stream; the gravel and water are then discharged 
* Railroad Gazette, Sept. 14, 1906. 



16 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

upon a bar screen with two-inch spaces, thus removing 
all pebbles larger than two-inch, these large pebbles 
being discharged into a crusher. The material then 
passes successively over |-inch, |-inch, and |-inch mesh 
wire screens. Each size of gravel is run into a separate 
hopper, and the material that passes the last screen is 
run into the settler from which building sand is obtained, 
the sand being a by-product which reduces the cost of 
the ballast. Cars are run under the hoppers of the bins 
and any desired mixture of the different sizes of pebbles 
can be made. 

The maximum daily capacity of the newer of these 
plants is 1500 cu. yds., and the washing costs 22.7 cents 
per cubic yard, which, added to the cost of 6.5 cents per 
cu. yd. for stripping the gravel pit, makes the total cost 
of the washed gravel on the car a little over 29 cents per 
cu. yd., which is about one-half the cost of crushed stone 
for ballast. 

Washed gravel ballast will drain readily, give a good 
support to the tie, distribute the pressure over the road- 
bed fairly well, will tamp easily, will not form dust or 
allow weeds or grass to grow, and costs much less than 
rock ballast in some sections of the country. It is claimed 
by some engineers that gravel ballast gives a more elastic 
and better riding track than broken stone ballast. 

22. Cinder Ballast. — Cinders make a much better 
ballast than is generally supposed, but as they can only 
be obtained locally in relatively small quantities, they 
are mostly used for railroad yards and side tracks. 
Cinders from roundhouse ash-pits do not contain a very 
large proportion of ash and undesirable materials and are 



PERMANENT WAY. 17 

composed principally of clinkers, slag, burned rock, etc. 
It is necessary to dispose of this material, and it must be 
loaded into cars, hauled away and dumped, so the only 
expense in connection with using it for ballast is that of 
hauling it to the place where it is to be used and distribut- 
ing it along the track. The constant supply that comes 
from this source makes it very convenient for ballast 
renewals, but it is difficult to obtain enough cinders to use 
exclusively over a considerable stretch of road. Care 
must be taken to use cinder comparatively free from 
ashes. At best, cinder becomes pulverized during the 
process of tamping and the action of traffic, and is also 
liable to disintegrate under the action of the elements 
and form a mass that will retain moisture in wet weather 
and form a bad dust in dry weather. 

23. Sand Ballast.— The use of sand for ballast should 
be only temporary. -It is far inferior to any of the bal- 
lasts mentioned above, and is superior to ^'mud" ballast 
only. Where the railroad is so situated that there is no 
better material for ballast along the line, and all material 
used must come in over the line from one end, then it 
will probably be necessary to put the track in temporary 
surface by using sand. In this case only enough to bed 
the ties and put the track in surface should be used, so 
that when the proper ballast is obtained, the sand may 
be considered as the top of the subgrade. The only ad- 
vantage of sand ballast is that it is better than dirt 
ballast. It allows the water to drain out to a moderate 
degree and exerts a fair tendency to keep the track in 
surface and alinement. It retains sufficient moisture to 
hasten the decay of the tie, and it is quite difficult to 
2 



18 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

keep it free from weeds and dust. The amount of dust 
formed by a fast train over a sand-ballasted roadbed is 
enormous. The sand should be clean, coarse, and sharp. 

24. Miscellaneous Ballast. — The cost of transporta- 
tion in many cases becomes the governing feature in ob- 
taining suitable ballast at an economical cost, and it is 
more economical to use a poor local material than to 
transport a better material for ballast a long distance. 
This has led to the use of a number of materials for 
ballast. In the anthracite coal regions of eastern Penn- 
sylvania and in some other mining regions, culm, or coal- 
dust from the breakers, has been used for ballast on 
branch roads carrying principally freight traffic. It is a 
mobile substance, having a tendency to spn^ad at the 
sides of the track. It is not softened by water, does not 
heave by freezing, and does not grow vegetation. 
It is easily worked but will not stand bar tamping, and 
does not make a firm support for the tic.* 

Oyster shells are used for ballast in some regions near 
the Chesapeake Bay. The material is too light for good 
results and encourages the growth of weeds and grass, but 
does not form dust, and can be used only under very 
light traffic. 

Decomposed rock, granite, or shale is used extensively 
for ballast in some parts of the West and South. De- 
composed granite makes a better ballast than sand, as it 
does not form dust or cause weeds and grass to grow, but 
decomposed shale makes a poorer ballast than clean 
sharp sand. 

In some parts of Arizona volcanic cinder is used for 
* Notes on Track, Camp. 



PERMANENT WAY. 19 

ballast. It is excavated from pits with steam shovels 
and closely resembles burnt clay ballast. In ballasting 
track it is first tamped with shovels, and surfaced up 
later with tamping bars. 

In regions where neither stone, slag, gravel, cinder, 
sand, nor any of the above-mentioned materials for 
ballast can be obtained without an excessive haul, and 
the subsoil is clay or gumbo, a great deal of burnt clay 
ballast has been used. The clay or gumbo is placed in 
alternate layers with fuel and burned, thus giving a 
material which resembles a poor grade of brick. It is 
drier, although it has a considerable affinity for water, 
than the original material, and is quite expensive com- 
pared to the results obtained, but under the circum- 
stances gives a comparatively good roadbed. It is used 
extensively in the Mississippi Valley, and some road- 
masters who have become familiar with it compare it 
favorably with gravel and even stone ballast. 

25. Dirt Ballast. — Dirt ballast, commonly called 
mud ballast J is, as the name implies, simply the best dirt 
for the purpose that can be obtained from the excava- 
tions made in constructing the subgrade. Dirt is used 
for ballast only when no other material can be obtained, 
and it is not of such poor quality that it must be first 
burned. After the subgrade is finished and the track 
laid, enough extra dirt is thrown under the ties to surface 
up the track, care being taken to exclude rubbish, the 
top soil, and all undesirable material as far as possible. 

Dirt ballast gives the poorest drainage, the worst 
support to the ties, is the most liable to rot the ties, and 
it is almost impossible to keep weeds and grass out of the 



20 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

track. It is dusty in dry weather and causes the ties to 
pump mud in wet weather. No surfacing can be done 
between fall and spring, and the track is heaved by the 
frost. One of the worst features in connection with 
even the temporary use of dirt ballast is that the ballast 
becomes practically a part of the subgrade, which makes 
a very undesirable foundation on account of the uneven 
surface for a better grade of ballast. 

26. Cross-section of Ballast. — The shape of the cross- 
section of all single track ballast, excepting rock and slag 
ballast, is shown in Fig. 3. The dimensions and slopes 
vary with the standards of the particular railroad com- 
pany, but an outer slope of 1 on 1 J is the steepest slope 

that will stand. The depth 
' I ' ; -k of the ballast E F will de- 

F ""^^ ^ — pend upon the material 

Fig. 3. used and whether or not 

it is to be replaced or cov- 
ered by a better material. All ballast excepting stone, 
slag, and washed and assorted gravel should be considered 
temporary. For good gravel ballast it is customary to 
use a maximum depth E F of about twelve inches. Sand, 
burnt clay, and dirt ballast should have barely enough 
depth to* allow the tie to be properly embedded and 
tamped without interfering with the finished surface of 
the subgrade any more than absolutely necessary. This 
small depth is much better than a greater thickness. 
If these inferior ballasts be made too thick, it may 
be necessary to dig them out before laying the stone 
ballast, otherwise in getting the proper depth of stone 
ballast it would require the grade to be raised higher 



PERMANENT WAY. 21 

than desired, besides the disadvantages mentioned 
in Tf 25. 

In Fig. 3 it is seen that the tie is not imbedded as in 
rock ballast, Fig. 1, but that the ballast slopes away from 
the lower corner of the tie and rises to the height of the 
top of the tie only at the center. This is on account of 
the less perfect drainage of the ballast materials with the 
corresponding tendency to hasten the decay of the tie. 
It is seen that the track can be pushed out of line more 
easily than in stone ballast, both on account of the 
smaller surface of the tie in contact with the ballast, and 
also on account of all ballasts having a smaller holding 
force per unit of area of the tie than rock and slag bal- 
last. 

27. Laying Ballast. — The kind of ballast to be used 
is governed by the class of the railroad and the amount 
of traffic to be carried. On a first-class, or trunk line, 
railroad the ballast is essential as soon as the track is 
laid and before the track can be put in operation. The 
track is spiked together as near as possible to its final 
location on the roadbed, and put in condition that the 
construction train can be pushed slowly over it, cars of 
ballast are pushed ahead on it, and the ballast is de- 
posited on each side of the track, and sometimes in the 
center of track. The track is jacked up, the ballast is 
forked under it, and the track is tamped into true line 
and surface. In this method of ballasting no traffic ex- 
cepting the necessary construction trains pass over the 
road until it is thrown open to regular service. 

'28. Economy and Cost of Ballast. — On a line where 
the traffic is comparatively light and the ballast must be 



22 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

hauled a long distance, the track is lined up and surfaced 
with as httle sand or dirt ballast as possible, and is 
ballasted by the maintenance of way force working be- 
tween regular trains, the line in the mean time being in 
service with speed limits. 

Ballast in first-class construction is almost entirely a 
matter of first cost. After the full amount of ballast is 
laid very little more is required to keep the track in true 
line and surface. On light traffic roads the whole line 
will not be ballasted at first, and a continuous supply of 
ballast will be needed until the whole line is ballasted. 

The cost of ballast in the track depends upon (a) the 
first cost of the material as it comes to the railroad, or 
f. o. b. if the supply is along the line, (6) on the distance 
from the source of supply to the place where it is to be 
used, and (c) on the method of handling. The cost of 
stone ballast in the track averages about $1.25 per cu. 
yd. Dirt ballast will cost possibly twenty-five cents per 
cubic yard in the track, the principal part of the cost 
being for surfacing the track. The other kinds of bal- 
last cost somewhere between these limits. 



Article III. 

CROSS-TIES AND TIE PLATES. 

29. The Function of Cross-ties. — Cross-ties re- 
ceived their name in the first place in order to distin- 
guish this method of supporting the rails from the Ion- 



PERMANENT WAY. 



23 



gitudinal supports, or stringers; they are now generally 
called ties. Cross-ties hold the rails in position and 
transfer the pressure of the engine and train through 
the ballast to the subgrade. There has been quite a 




Fig. 4. — Stone Stringer, Portage Railroad. 



development from the original rail support to the present 
tie. The first railroad had longitudinal stone or timber 
stringers upon which the rails were fastened, the rails 
consisting of simply enough iron to furnish a wearing 
surface, while the stringers carried the weight, Fig. 4. 



24 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

After rails which could carry the load between supports 
were invented, the ends of the rails rested on stone 
blocks, Fig. 5. As the design of the rail improved it 
was found that wooden cross-ties made a better riding 
track and were less expensive than stone blocks. There 
were many different designs for supporting the rail, but 
the above illustrate the general principle and indicate 
the line of development. 




Fig. 5. — Stone Block, Frenchtown and New Castle Railroad. 

30. Kind of Wood for Ties. — When the demand for 
wood for commercial purposes was less and fewer ties 
were needed, ties were much cheaper and the better 
grades of wood could be easily obtained for them, nearly 
all railroad ties being white oak. The table on p. 25 
shows the cross-tie data for 1905. 

Oak is the most desirable timber for cross-ties, and is 
found in several varieties, white oak, post oak, and rock 
oak being the better varieties. Oak is used for many 



PERMANENT WAY. 



25 



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26 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



purposes other than ties, and on account of the great 

demand for it, its slow growth, and its increasing scarcity, 

the proportionate use of the softer and quicker growing 

woods is becoming much greater; the same may be said 

for long-leaf yellow pine, the great demand for which 

will soon make it very hard to obtain. The use of cypress 

and redwood ties is increasing very rapidly. 

The price of ties has increased three-fold in the last 

twenty years. The following table * gives the cost of ties 

in 1905: 

TABLE III. 

Value of Ties Purchased by Steam Railroads of the United 
States in 1905. 



Kind of Wood. 



Number. 



Average 

Cost 
PER Tie. 



Total. 



Oak 

Pine 

Cedar 

Chestnut 

Douglas fir. . . 

Cypress 

Tamarack 

Hemlock 

Redwood .... 
Western larch 

Spruce 

Birch 

Beech 

Maple 

Miscellaneous . 

Total 



34,677 

18,351 

6,962 

4,717 

3,633 

3,483 

3,060 

1,713 

590 

311 

148 

35 

34 

25 

236 



,304 
,037 
,927 
,604 
,276 
,746 
,082 
,090 
,852 
,120 
,168 
,500 
,227 
,500 
,894 



$0.55 
.42 
.44 
.48 
.33 
.33 
.36 
.33 
.20 
.45 
.35 
.40 
.40 
.40 
.48 



$19,072,517.20 

7,707,435.54 

3,063,643.88 

2,264,449.92 

1,199,981.08 

1,149,636.18 

1,101,629.52 

565,319.70 

118,170.40 

140,004.00 

51,858.80 

14,200.00 

13,690.80 

10,200.00 

113,709.12 



77,981,227 



$36,585,446.14 



31. Number of Cross-ties Required. — Cross-ties are 
becoming one of the greatest problems that confronts 
* Circular 43, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



PERMANENT WAY. 27 

railroad managements. There were in June, 1906, 
according to the Report of the Interstate Commerce 
Commission, 224,363 miles of steam railroads and 319,- 
106 miles of track in operation in the United States. 
According to Table III, 78,000,000 ties were used in 1905. 
Under normal conditions an oak tie will last ten to 
twelve years, and a hemlock tie will last four years, the 
other woods having an average life somewhere between 
these two limits; consequently, as the greater proportion 
of the softer woods come into use, the average life of rail- 
road ties decreases, being now about seven years. 

Assuming 2500 ties per mile, there were about 900,000,- 
000 ties in track in the United States in 1906 on the 
steam railroads alone; and assuming an average life 
of seven years, 128,000,000 ties were required for re- 
newals in 1907, to which must be added the ties needed 
for new track. Onr account of the mileage of track in- 
creasing rapidly and the decreasing average life of a tie, 
the cross-tie problem has become a very serious one. 

32. Life of Ties. — The three principal causes which 
tend to destroy a tie are as follows: (1) Decay; (2) in- 
jury in spiking; and (3) the cutting of the tie by the 
base of the rail. The decay of a tie is governed by the 
climate, the ballast, the time of year it is cut, and the 
amount to which it is seasoned. In the colder and drier 
climates a tie lasts longer than in the warmer and damper 
climates. The warm, damp climate and the accompany- 
ing destruction by insects shorten the life of a tie to one 
or two years in some cases. There is a tendency for water 
to get into the tie through the fibers of the tie injured 
in spiking and to hasten the decay of the tie, particularly 



28 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

where traffic is heavy and rails must be replaced, which 
is done in many cases by driving the spikes in another 
part of the tie without plugging up the old holes. The 
amount of the cutting of the tie by the base of the rail 
depends upon the hardness of the wood and the weight 
and amount of traffic. This will be discussed later 
under the head of Tie-plates. 

33. Cause of Decay of Wood. — The decay of timber 
depends upon the amount of water in the wood. Water 
may occur in wood in three conditions:* (1) It forms 
the greater part (over 90 per cent.) of the protoplasmic 
contents of the living cells; (2) it saturates the walls of all 
cells ; and (3) it entirely or at least partly fills the cavities of 
the lifeless cells, fibers, and vessels; in the sapwood of 
pine it occurs in all three forms; in the heart-wood only 
in the second form — it merely saturated the walls. This 
accounts for the greater durability of long-leaf yellow 
pine. 

It is generally supposed that trees contain less water 
in winter than in summer. This is evidenced by the 
popular saying that ^^the sap is down in the winter.^' 
This is probably not always the case. 

Decay is caused by low forms of plant life called fungi, 
which grow in wood, and by so doing disintegrate and dis- 
solve portions of the wood fiber. The necessary condi- 
tions for the development and growth of wood-destroying 
fungi are — (1) water, (2) air, (3) organic food materials, 
and (4) a certain amount of heat. It is, therefore, neces- 
sary to get rid of the water, and as much of the organic 
food materials as possible. 

* Bulletin 41, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



PERMANENT WAY. 29 

34. Seasoning Timber. — Seasoning timber consists 
of drying it into such condition that it will best resist 
decay. This will be accomplished for most hard woods 
by cutting it at the best season and then allowing it to 
dry, or season, thoroughly. This is more important than 
ever before. Formerly timber was cheap and easy to 
obtain and very little attention was paid to its lasting 
qualities, particularly when used for ties. Good tie 
material has now become so scarce and the price has 
increased to such an extent that strict attention must 
be paid to the economy of the question. 

Hardwood timber should be cut when the sap is down, 
as it will then contain a minimum amount of water and 
sap which contains albuminous substances, starch, sugar, 
and oils, which form the food-supply necessary to start 
the growth of the fungus which causes decay. If the 
timber is cut when the sap is down, there is not only less 
of the fermenting substance in the wood, but the pores 
of the wood are more closed and moisture has more 
difficulty in entering. The best time for cutting timber 
is between October and March, depending upon the 
particular region and the kind of timber, January being 
probably the best time. 

All water should be thoroughly dried out of the wood, 
which is done either by proper exposure to the air for 
possibly a year or more, or by the quicker and artificial 
method of ^^kiln-drying.'' The better method to use 
will depend upon circumstances; the cost in the slow, 
natural method being simply that of piling the timber 
properly and the interest on the money invested. If 
ties are not kiln-dried, they should be piled as shown 



30 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



in Fig. 6, and allowed to thoroughly season. Spaces 
should be left between the ties, as shown in the figure, 
to allow the air free access, and if they are not put 
under roof, the top layer of ties should be placed as 




Fig. 6. 



-12 — 



close together as possible in order to protect the pile 
from rain. 

35. Hewed vs. Sawed Ties. — Cross-ties are hewed 
, ^,, , or sawed. Hewed ties are better be- 

cause hewing closes the surface pores 
of the wood, while sawing opens them, 
thus allowing the water to enter more 
freely, with the consequent greater 
tendency to decay. It is difficult to 
hew a poor stick of timber into a tie, 
while a crooked piece of wood may 
be sawed so that only a very close 
inspection will reveal its imperfections. One oak tie is 
usually made from each length of timber; it is dressed to 
the specified thickness within J of an inch, and the bark 
removed from the other two faces, as shown in Fig. 7. 





Fig. 7. 



PERMANENT WAY. 31 

When only one tie can be made from a length of timber, 
there is no more waste in hewing than in sawing, since the 
parts that are chipped or sawed off are too small to make 
Imnber, but where the timber is large and more than 
one tie can be cut from it, it is more economical to saw 
it. It will be economical to saw a log as shown in Fig. 
7, since the lower part of the log can be cut into standard 
sizes, the smaller pieces in the figure being three by four 
inches. 

On account of the growing scarcity of timber and 
the waste that is sometimes occasioned in hewing, the 
United States Department of Agri- 
culture in its Forest Service Bulletins 
advocates the sawing of timber into 
ties. 

For practically all kinds of wood, 
excepting oak, it is specified that all 
sap-wood must be removed except- Fig. 8. 

ing a limited amount on the corners. 
The maximum amount of sap-wood allowed on the 
corners is not more than one inch radially across the 
grain (a c), or IJ inches on the face of the tie (a fe), as 
shown in Fig. 8. 

36. Size of Ties. — Each railroad has its own standard 
sizes for cross-ties, and hardly two agree. Many roads 
classify into first, second, and third class, but on accoimt 
of the different standards a first-class tie on one road 
may correspond to a second-class on another, and vice 
versa. The American Engineering and Maintenance 
of Way Association, in 1904, adopted the following pro- 
posed tie classification : 




32 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

TABLE IV. 



Class. 


Breadth. 


Thickness. 


Length. 


A 


9 inches 

8 " 

9 " 
8 " 
7 " 
6 " 


7 inches 
7 " 
6 '' 
6 '' 
6 " 
6 " 


8, 8.5, or 9 feet 


B 


8, 8.5, or 9 '' 


C 


8, 8.5, or 9 " 


D 


8, 8.5, or 9 " 


E 


8 8.5, or 9 " 


F 


8, 8.5, or 9 " 







Ties in use at present on steam railroads range in di- 
mensions as follows: Width of narrowest of the faces, 
6 to 12 inches; thickness, 6 to 8 inches; and length, 8 to 
9| feet. The average size of a first-class tie is 8 inches 
wide, 7 inches thick or deep, and 8^ feet long. The ends 
are sawed off square. Ties should be laid on their broad- 
est face, as shown in Fig. 7. 

37. Inspection of Ties. — Ties should not be smaller 
than the dimensions specified, should not have knots 
that will interfere with spiking or loose knots, and should 
be soimd. Soundness consists principally in being free 
from worm-holes, wind shakes, and dead timber. When 
delivered to the railroad, they must be piled in a specified 
manner and place. The manner of piling the ties must 
be such that they cannot only be seasoned properly, 
but they must also be convenient for inspection. They 
are inspected for the above requirements, marked in a 
substantial manner, and all the ties not up to specifi- 
cations are either rejected entirely or accepted as a lower 
class and paid for at a correspondingly lower rate. 

38. Spacing of Ties. — The number of ties per rail 
length depends upon the standards of the various rail- 
roads. These standards are governed to a great extent 



PERMANENT WAY. 33 

by the class and amount of traffic, the size and variety 
of the tie, and the kind of rail joint used. Most railroads 
have at least two standards of spacing, one for main line 
and another for yards and sidings. The number of ties 
used ranges from 14 per 30-foot rail to 19 ties per 33-foot 
rail. Some railroads use two more ties per rail on curves 
than on tangents; these railroads seem to be divided into 
two general classes; viz., those using 16 and 18, and those 
using 14 and 16 ties per 30-foot rail on tangent and curve 
respectively. One of the large eastern railroads speci- 
fies 16 ties 10 inches wide, 7 inches thick, and 8^ feet long 
per 33-foot rail. According to the above spacing the 
number of ties per mile of single track ranges from 2464 
to 3040. 

39. Planting Trees for Ties. — Ties are becoming 
scarce and are advancing rapidly in price. In the past, 
timber has been cut without any provision for the future, 
and the supply is rapidly becoming exhausted. For- 
merly it was possible, in the eastern part of the country, 
to contract for white-oak ties anywhere along the line 
of the railroads and have them delivered at a point con- 
venient for storage or shipment; in some cases these 
same railroads are using pine ties and must haul them 
1000 miles, and place their order far in advance. One 
of these roads paid sixty cents for yellow pine ties in 1905, 
and seventy-three cents in 1906, the price increasing 
seven cents per tie in six months. The growing scarcity 
of timber for ties has caused several railroads to plant 
large tracts of land in timber. Fortunatety, land other- 
wise of little value may be used for this purpose. The 
Pennsylvania Railroad west of Pittsburg planted catalpa 
3 



34 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

trees along its right of way twenty-five years ago, but 
the results were unsatisfactory. During the last few 
years they have been planting yellow locust trees on an 
extensive scale.* The trees thus planted are seedlings 
two or three years old, and cost, including labor of plant- 
ing, about eight cents each. From 1902 to 1906 the above 
company planted about 1,300,000 trees. ^^ There is prob- 
ably no other timber which combines so well the qualities 
of durability and hardness as does the yellow locust.'^ 
^^ Evidences of its longevity in use as tie timber are fre- 
quent on our road^' (Pennsylvania). '^The resistance 
of locust timber to cutting under the rail is said to exceed 
that of white oak, and it has been demonstrated upon 
our main lines that it is not so much the decay of the 
timber as it is the cutting in by the rail, which wears out 
or decreases the life of the tie.'' ^^The average life of a 
strictly white-oak tie is about ten years — we expect to 
get longer life out of the locust.'' 

'^The requirements for 1906 will cause more than 
1,266,000 acres, or 1980 square miles, to be cleared." t 
'^If conservative forestry methods were used and a per- 
petual supply preserved, a forest of more than 35,000 
square miles, or the area of the state of Indiana, would 
have to be set aside for the timber alone." 

40. Preservation of Ties. — On account of the m- 
creasing demand for ties, the softer woods used, and the 
advancing price, it has now reached the point where it is 
economical to use artificial means of prolonging the life 
of a tie. This is done in the following ways : (1) Treating 

* Jos. T. Richards, before the American Forest Congress, 1905 
t Railroad Gazette, March 16, 1906. 



PERMANENT WAY. 35 

the tie to prevent decay; and (2) the use of tie-plates 
to prevent the base of the rail from cutting into the tie. 

The economy of treating depends principally upon two 
things; viz., the location and the traffic. In sections 
of the country where decay is rapid, owing to climatic 
conditions and poor ballast, it will pay to treat the tie 
with some process, not too expensive, that will make the 
tie last until the wear of the base of the rail causes its 
destruction, provided the increased life of the tie is great 
enough to warrant the expense of treating it. In the 
northern part of the United States, under heavy traffic, 
the tie is worn out by the base of the rail and respiking 
before the tie decays, even when tie-plates are used; 
consequently it would be a useless expense to treat the 
tie. One advantage of treating ties with a preservative 
process is that classes of wood that are otherwise of very 
little value for.ties make a serviceable tie when so treated. 
These soft woods are cheaper in first cost and absorb the 
antiseptics much more readily than the harder woods, 
and consequently are cheaper to treat. The use of pre- 
servative methods is, therefore, an economical question 
that must be worked out by each railroad according to 
local conditions. 

41. General Principles of Preservative Methods. — 
The principle of all preservative treatment of timber is to 
extract all the sap and then fill the pores of the wood with 
the antiseptic. Most of the sap and harmful elements 
are removed by cutting the timber at the proper season 
(If 34) and by thorough seasoning (T[ 34) . In some of the 
methods the thoroughness of the seasoning is not of vital 
importance. There are a number of methods of preserv- 



36 KAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

ing timber, among the principal of which are kyanizing, 
Burnettizing, vulcanizing, and creosoting. 

42. Kyanizing. — Kyanizing is the process of soaking 
the timber in a solution of bichloride of mercury, or 
corrosive sublimate, for several days, the length of time 
which the timber is soaked depending upon the dimen- 
sions of the timber. A tie seven inches thick should 
be allowed to soak eight days; and each tie will absorb 
about one-fourth of a pound of the bichloride. The tie 
is then allowed to dry in the air for about two weeks. 
The fumes from the chemical are poisonous and objec- 
tionable to work with, and its solubility makes it liable 
to wash out of the wood and leave it unprotected. 

43. Burnettizing. — In the Burnettizing method chlo- 
ride of zinc is used. The timber is placed in a vacuum 
which removes all of the remaining sap, and then has 
the solution forced into its pores by pressure. The 
process costs from twelve to twenty-five cents per tie, 
depending upon the amount of the chloride of zinc in the 
solution. This process is subject to the same objection 
as kyanizing, in that the chemical is rather easily washed 
out. A peculiarity of the process is that if too much of 
the chloride is used, the timber is made brittle and its 
strength reduced. 

44. Vulcanizing. — In the process of vulcanizing no 
attempt is made to expel the sap from the wood, the 
theory being that the heat coagulates the albumen and 
the distillation of the sap transforms the sap into various 
wood-preserving compounds, such as wood creosote. 
The process consists in placing the timber in a cylinder, 
heating it to a temperature of 300° to 500° F., under an 



PERMANENT WAY. 37 

air pressure of 100 to 200 pounds per square inch; this 
coagulates the albumen in the sap, evaporates the water, 
and partly closes the pores of the wood. It is claimed 
that the heat sterilizes the wood and produces chemical 
changes in the wood which give it an antiseptic character. 
The elevated railroads of New York city used it exten- 
sively. In one case where the life of an im treated tie was 
six years, the treated ties lasted over seventeen years. 
The treatment costs about 25 cents per tie, and re- 
quires about eight hours. 

45. Creosoting. — Creosoting consists in impregnating 
the wood with creosote. Creosote is obtained by dis- 
tilling either wood or coal-tar. The coal-tar product 
is called ^^dead oil of coal-tar,'' and the wood product 
is called ^^wood creosote.'' Dead oil of coal-tar is more 
expensive than wood creosote, but is much more effi- 
cient as an antiseptic?, and is preferred in first-class work. 
The dead oil should contain no water, ammonia, or ingre- 
dients soluble in water, and should be completely liquid 
at 100^ F. The oils most desirable in the oil of tar 
classes are those which boil at medium temperatures, 
as those that boil at low temperatures are too volatile and 
costly, while those that boil at the higher temperatures 
are too heavy for effective penetration. The latter con- 
tain too much solid matter, or substances that harden 
soon after penetrating the cooler parts of the interior, 
thus obstructing the pores of the wood before its im- 
pregnation is complete. 

46. Blythe Process of Creosoting. — There are a 
number of different methods of creosoting, varying 
mostly in the details. In the Blythe process there are 



38 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

three stages; viz., seasoning, extraction of the sap and 
moisture, and the injection of the oil. The ties, if not 
well seasoned, are sometimes kiln-dried, so as to evapo- 
rate all moisture possible. They are then placed in large 
cylinders, into which live steam is admitted and held for 
several hours. The object of steaming is to liquefy 
the portions of the sap which have solidified during the 
process of seasoning. After the steam is let pff the air is 
exhausted and a partial vacuum is maintained for a time, 
the result being that the moisture and liquids formed 
by the steam in the interior of the timber are drawn 
out, clearing the way for the ingress of the creosote. 
While the vacuum is held, heat is maintained by steam 
coils to prevent the vapors from condensing and remain- 
ing in the timber. After the products of this treatment 
are drawn off the cylinder is then filled with creosote at 
about 175° F., and held under pressure until the desired 
amount of creosote has been absorbed. 

47. Columbia Process of Creosoting. — One of the 
latest methods is that of the Columbia Creosoting Com- 
pany, a description of whose plant is given in the Rail- 
road Gazette of March 16, 1906. This company has a 
two-retort plant with a capacity of 2,000,000 ties per 
year. The timber is not steamed before injecting the 
preservative. Only air-seasoned timber is treated and 
the timber is not exposed to heat of any sort, dry or steam, 
during the treatment. The ties are placed in the cylinder, 
and it is filled with oil by gravity from the storage tanks. 
The pressure pump is then started and additional oil 
pumped in to give the required saturation, the pressure 
maintained being 180 pounds per sq. in. The pressure 



PERMANENT WAY. 39 

is removed and the oil is allowed to flow from the cylinder 
to an underground tank; then the free oil in the timber 
is withdrawn by the creation of an almost instantaneous 
vacuum by a process which is one of the special features 
of the plant, and by means of which the amount of oil 
left in a tie can be varied from IJ gallons up to any 
amount required. By this process a 20-inch vacuum 
can be obtained in fifteen minutes and a 25-inch vacuum 
in thirty-five to forty-five minutes, a temperature of 160° 
F. being maintained in the retort meanwhile. 

The ties are loaded upon a tram car, which is run into 
the retort, the ties being held in place by steel bails which 
are If inches in diameter and too stiff to be sprung out 
of shape by forcing in an extra tie. The loaded car 
is designed for a clearance of only J inch in the cylinder. 
The cylinders, or retorts, are 7 feet in diameter and 130 
feet long, and are made of f-inch steel with double 
riveted circumferential joints and triple riveted double- 
butt longitudinal seams. The cylinders rest in cast-iron 
saddles bearing on cast-iron plates bolted to concrete 
foundations. Each cylinder is anchored at the middle, 
permitting expansion toward both ends, and has a door 
at each end. 

48. Grade of Creosote Used. — ''The creosote used 
is the highest grade obtainable in America, the speci- 
fications requiring a boiling point of 220° C, which in- 
sures the elimination, before use, of all light and volatile 
fractions.^^ ''The contract price with the Big Four at 
the Shirley plant is thirty cents a tie^'; this contract 
required 2^ gallons, or eight pounds of oil per cubic foot. 
Creosoting has long been considered the best method of 



40 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

preserving timber, but the cost of the process has re- 
tarded its use. The higher price. of timber, and particu- 
larly of railroad ties, together with the price of the 
process of treating the ties being reduced to reasonable 
figures, brings the economy of using treated timber with 
renewed force to all who are confronted with the cross- 
tie problem. 

49. Economy of Treating Ties. — The economy of 
using treated or untreated ties may be determined by the 
following method : 

Let T = cost of untreated tie. 
P = cost of treating the tie. 
n = life of untreated tie in years. 
N = life of treated tie in years, 
r = rate of interest. 

S = capital necessary to provide for depreci- 
ation. 
D = annual depreciation. 
C = annual cost of untreated tie. 

Placing S at compound interest : 

S (1 + r)n = T + S, from which 
T 
S-(i + r)n_l(l) 

The annual cost, C, of the untreated tie will be equal 
to the interest on the first cost, plus the annual depreci- 
ation, or — 

50. Annual Cost of Untreated Ties. — From formula 



PERMANENT WAY. 41 

(3), assuming the annual rate of interest at five per 
cent., the following tables have been computed: 

TABLE V. 
For n = four years. 

Cost of tie $0.40 $0.50 $0.60 $0.70 $0.80 $0.90 $1.00 

Annual interest 020 .025 .030 .035 .040 .045 .050 

Annual depreciation . .093 .116 .139 .163 .186 .209 .232 
Annual cost 113 .141 .169 .198 .226 .254 .282 

TABLE VI. 
For n = six years. 

Cost of tie $0.40 $0.50 $0.60 $0.70 $0.80 $0.90 $1.00 

Annual interest 020 .025 .030 .035 .040 .045 .050 

Annual depreciation . .059 .074 .088 .103 .118 .132 .147 
Annual cost 079 .099 .118 .138 .158 .177 .197 

TABLE VII. 
For n = eight years. 

Cost of tie $0.40 $0.50 $0.60 $0.70 $0.80 $0.90 $1.00 

Annual interest 020 .025 .030 .035 .040 .045 .050 

Annual depreciation . .042 .052 .063 .073 .084 .092 .105 
Annual cost .t)62 .077 .093 .108 .124 .137 .155 



51. Annual Cost of Treated Ties. — By a similar 
method, T+P being the first cost, the annual cost of 
treated ties is — 

C- = (T + P)r + (/^y^l (4) 

From formula (4), assuming the annual rate of interest 
at five per cent., the following tables have been computed : 

TABLE VIII. 

For N = eight years. 
Cost of tie and treat- 
ment $0.70 $0.80 $0.90 $1.00 $1.10 $1.20 $1.30 

Annual interest 035 .040 .045 .050 .055 .060 .065 

Annual depreciation .073 .084 .094 .105 .115 .126 .136 
Annual cost 108 .124 .139 .155 .170 .186 .201 



42 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

TABLE IX. 

For N = ten years. 
Cost of tie and treat- 
ment $0.70 $0.80 $0.90 $L00 $1.10 $1.20 $1.30 

Annual interest 035 .040 .045 .050 .055 .060 .065 

Annual depreciation . .056 .064 .071 .079 .087 .095 .103 
Annual cost 091 .104 .116 .129 .142 .155 .168 

TABLE X. 

For N = twelve years. 
Cost of tie and treat- 
ment $0.70 $0.80 $0.90 $1.00 $1.10 $1.20 $1.30 

Annual interest 035 .040 .045 .050 .055 .060 .065 

Annual depreciation . .044 .050 .056 .063 .069 .075 .082 
Annual cost 079 .090 .101 .113 .124 .135 .147 



52. Metal Cross-ties. — Metal railroad ties have been 
extensively used in Germany for more than forty years, 
a report having been made on them in 1868, and in 
1889 Germany had 9902 miles of iron or steel ties on 
their railroads. At first they followed along the general 
lines of the earliest railroad track in endeavoring to 
make practically a continuous rail by using longitudinal 
metal sleepers, or stringers, instead of cross-ties, and in 
1889, 6181 miles of the total 9902 miles had the longi- 
tudinal sleepers, or stringers. These lost favor, and by 
the year 1900, while track laid with metal cross-ties had 
increased to 10,695 miles, the longitudinal sleepers had 
largely disappeared. In 1903, 11,534 miles of through,, 
or main, track had steel cross-ties and 32,192 miles had 
timber cross-ties. This does not show a very heavy pro- 
portionate increase in the use of steel ties.* 

53. Steel Ties in the United States. — The use of 
steel ties in the United States is entirely in an experi- 
mental stage, and data are very hard to obtain. In the 

* Railroad Gazette, Sept. 14, and Oct. 19, 1906. 



PERMANENT WAY. 43 

Railroad Gazette of July 20, 1906, is printed the state- 
ment of the Carnegie Steel Co. as to the use of their steel 
ties. Prior to 1906 the following roads installed these 
ties : Pennsylvania lines west of Pittsburg, Lake Shore 
and Michigan Southern, New York Central, Bessemer 
and Lake Erie, Manufacturers Railway, St. Louis, Mo., 
Pittsburg Railways, Cleveland Electric Co., Duluth 
and Iron Range, and Northern Pacific Railroads. The 
following railroads and railways were furnished steel 
ties for 1906 installation: 

Bessemer and Lake Erie Railroad 30 miles. 

Union R. R 11 " 

Baltimore and Ohio R. R 1 mile. 

Pennsylvania R. R 1 " 

Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburg R. R 1 " 

Mexico Electric Tramways 4 miles. 

International Railway, Buffalo 5 " 

Entre Rios Railway, Argentine i mile. 

Besides the above, steel ties have been furnished a 
number of other railroads in lots varying from 10 to 100. 

54. Carnegie Steel Ties. — There are two general 
types of steel ties, viz., the I-beam and the trough- 
shaped tie. The Carnegie tie is of the first-mentioned 
type, and the first tie consisted of a plate 4| inches wide, 
riveted to the top, and a plate 8 inches wide, riveted to 
the bottom of a 4-inch I-beam. A number of these were 
laid and showed no deterioration after being in the track 
seven years, while some of the wooden ties laid at the 
same time had to be replaced. The Bessemer and Lake 
Erie Railroad laid 25,000 of the Carnegie steel ties at 
points which gave them a severe test and found them 
satisfactory. 

The present form of the Carnegie steel tie is shown in 



44 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



Figs. 9, 10, 11, and 12. The cross-section A B of the 
main part of the tie is shown in Fig. 9; the top or head to 
which the rail is fastened is 4^ inches wide, J inch thick 
at the center, and -^ inch thick near the edges. The 






-ryi« 



SECTION A-B 

Fig. 9. 



eisss^sss!*^ 



SECTION C-D 

Fig. 10. 



web is \ inch thick, and the base is 8 inches wide, \ inch 
thick at the center, and ^ inch near the edges. The tie 
is h\ inches high, 8J feet long, and weighs 168 pounds, or 
about 19,4 pounds per linear foot. In order to prevent 
the tie from moving in the ballast, at 6 inches from each 






-8'6- 



PLAN 



M 



ELEVATION 

Fig. 11. 




Fig. 12. 



end of the tie the base is bent as shown in Fig. 10 ; this 
bent portion is 1| inches wide and projects \ inch below 
the balance of the base. The plan and elevation of the 
tie are shown in Fig. 11. 



PERMANENT WAY. 45 

The rail is fastened to the top of the tie by means of 
cHps shown in Fig. 12, the right hand-portion of the 
figure showing a joint dip, and the left an ordinary clip. 
These clips are designed and shaped so that the gauge 
can be adjusted a small amount, and be tightened and 
hold the rail firmly in place after the parts have worn. 
The bolts are | inch in diameter, three inches long from 
the inside of the head, and the head is set at an angle so 
that it will have a firm bearing against the lower, beveled 
edge of the head of the tie. 

55. The York Process for Rolling Steel Ties.— This 
method is shown in Fig. 13, the figure representing the 

^^ \ 



pr^f^/rfff-r-rl^'-V^^^^jTTTT aag 




Fig. 13. Fig. 14. 

section of a worn-out 65-pound rail, which has been re- 
rolled so that the head of the rail has been changed into 
the base of the tie, the base of the rail and the web being 
unchanged. The tie is 4 inches high, 4^ inches wide on 
the head, and 9 inches wide on the base. 

By the York Process the rail may be rolled into the 
shape shown in Fig. 14, with concave head and base, the 
idea being that this form gives elasticity to the track. 

56. The Hartford Steel Tie.— The Hartford tie is ojF 
the trough-shaped type, and the cross-section of one 
form of it is shown in Fig. 15. There are several modi- 
fications in the shape of the Hartford tie, the principal 



46 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

one being in the amount the ends are turned down so as 
to resist lateral motion. In* 1889 the New York Central 
and Hudson River R. R. laid 721 Hartford steel ties 8 
feet long under 80 pound rails on a stretch of 1576 feet 
of stone-ballasted main track. The ends of these ties 
curved downward about 6 inches; with the exception 
of the ends, the tie was straight. These ties were rolled 
Bessemer steel, weighed 150 pounds, including fasten- 
ings, and cost $3.11 each. Before laying the ties they 
were treated with a coating of asphaltum composition 
applied at a temperature of 300° F. The results with 



h — ^--- 



'^ ELEVATION 2K^ N-JLi 

T" 



ELEVATION ^H' 







mwM/M 



-lOi^L. 



Fig. 15. 

this tie were not entirely satisfactory. Although it 
made a good showing so far as durability was concerned, 
it was foimd difficult to throw the track in line and the 
expense of keeping the track in surface was about twice 
the cost of the same maintenance item in an equal 
length of track laid on wooden ties. The tendency of 
the ballast was to work- away from the tie at the ends, 
loosening the tie and causing it and the fastenings to 
rattle while trains were passing. These ties were re- 
moved after ten years' service under about 50 trains per 
day. 

. * Camp's Notes on Track. 



PERMANENT WAY. 47 

57. Cost and Economy of Steel Ties. — The dis- 
advantages of steel ties are — (1) difficulty of keeping the 
track in line and surface, (2) the rail fastenings work 
loose, and (3) the high cost. Steel ties seem to have 
given satisfaction in Europe and on some light traffic 
roads in the United States, but have not been sufficiently 
perfected to be economical on the eastern main line 
roads. In one case recently the bolts sheared off, caus- 
ing a very serious accident; the steel ties were immedi- 
ately removed and the track relaid with oak ties. There 
is no question of the durability of the metal, but, as men- 
tioned above, they are hard to maintain, arid the fasten- 
ings work loose. The roads with heavy traffic will not 
take up the question of steel ties seriously until the 
scarcity and high cost of timber compel them to do so. 

The cost of a steel tie depends principally upon its 
weight, and in round numbers the cost may be said to 
range between $2.50 and $3.50. If a wooden tie costs 
$1.00 and lasts eight years, in order to be economical a 
steel tie which costs $2.50 must last more than twice as 
long and give just as good a track. 

58. Concrete Cross-ties. — In the effort to find a 
substitute for wooden ties a number of different forms of 
concrete and reinforced concrete ties have been patented. 
A reinforced concrete tie which the Ulster and Delaware 
Railroad has laid as an experiment is described in the 
Railroad Gazette of Sept. 23, 1904. This tie is shown in 
Fig. 16, and consists of a solid prism of concrete, 8 feet 
long, 7 inches thick, and battered from 10 inches wide on 
the bottom to 8 inches at the top. They are molded in 
wooden forms and are reinforced by a piece of 2J by -^ 



48 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION* 



inch angle-iron 7 feet long, placed with the corner J inch 
below the top surface, and extending to within 6 inches 
of the ends of the tie. Tie plates 8 by 9 inches and j inch 
thick are embedded flush with the top of the tie on inter- 
mediate ties and 8 by lOf inches under joints. The rails 
are fastened by two f by 3J inch square-headed bolts 
passing through the angle-iron and plate as shown in 
the figure, and by means of cast-iron clips. The clips 
are shaped as shown in the figure, the dimensions being 



A 

^ 1 1 



^^ 



I ELEVATION 



^ 








SECTJOi* MB 





-J^' 


o 


^ 



Fig. 16. 



2^ by 2 by 1 inch over all, with a f| inch hole for the 
f inch bolt, the grip of the clip having the proper angle to 
fit neatly over the flange of the rail. A mixture of one 
part of Portland cement, two parts of coarse sharp sand, 
and four parts of crushed limestone which would pass 
through a f inch ring was used, and the reinforcement 
was old angle-iron, some of which was f inch by 3^ inches 
by 7 feet. The cost of the tie was 42 cents, exclusive of 
the reinforcement, and the weight was about 450 pounds. 



rp 



PERMANENT WAY. 49 

One of the first of these ties showed no signs of failure or 
of loose joints after being in the track more than a year. 

59. Economy of Reinforced Concrete Ties. — Most 
forms of concrete ties cost nearly or quite as much as 
steel ties, and must have a long life in order to be econom- 
ical. The results of some experinients show this form 
of tie to be a failure when placed in stone ballast under 
heavy traffic. In reinforced concrete ties the concrete 
shows a tendency to break away from the steel, and it is 
also difficult to keep the fastenings that hold the rail to 
the tie from working loose. The fact that some concrete 
ties laid on a concrete foundation for city railways have 
shown good wearing and lasting qualities 
leaves this method a possibility for the 
permanent way that all engineers hope to 
see perfected. 

60. Tie Plates.— Tie plates are steel 
or wrought-iron plates placed between Fig. 17. 
the base of the rail and the tie to pre- 
vent the rail from cutting into the tie as shown in Fig. 
17. The cutting of the tie by the rail is due to the 
pressure of the rail under traffic, and the movement of 
the rail, aided by sand and dust, which causes a grinding 
action. The tie plate distributes the pressure uniformly 
over a larger area, and since the tie plate is fixed firmly 
to the tie, the wear due to the movement of the rail is 
between the rail and the tie plate. 

The use of tie plates is economical only when the tie is 

soft enough to be worn out by the base of the rail before 

its life would be otherwise ended by decay or respiking. 

Tie plates would be a useless expense if the tie would 

4 




50 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

hold the rail without them until the end of the natural 
life of the tie, as will generally be the case with oak ties. 
The greatest economy comes in using them on soft woods 
of long lasting capacity, such as cedar, pine, redwood, 
etc. In some woods, such as longleaf yellow pine, the 
economy of using tie plates is problematical. 

6i. Tie Plates on Curves. — Ties on curves are sub- 
jected to rougher usage by the base of the rail than on 
tangents, hence in many cases it is economical to use tie 
plates on curves when the same class of ties would not 
need them on tangents. It is good economy to use tie 
plates, even on hardwood ties, on curves with a radius of 
1910 feet or less, as they also act as a rail brace. The 
life of the tie should in any case be prolonged for a suffi- 
cient length of time to pay for the cost of the tie plates. 
The conditions are often such that the use of tie plates 
is of doubtful economy, in which cases the custom is to 
put tie plates on a portion of the track and draw con- 
clusions from the comparative results. Tie plates that 
are used on curves should have a shoulder against which 
the outer flange of the base of the rail rests, thus acting 
partially as a rail brace. 

62. Types of Tie Plates. — There are many forms of 
tie plates, varying in shape, size, method of holding to 
the ties, and in other details; but there are two general 
types, viz., those that do not prevent lateral movement 
of the rail other than -by the resistance of the spikes, and 
those that have a projection on the top surface against 
which the outer flange of the base of the rail abuts. 

The first type, with the plane top, is illustrated by 
the Servis tie plate shown in Fig. 18. This plate is held 




PERMANENT WAY. 51 

in place on the tie by three or four wedge-shaped pro- 
jections on the bottom, which sink into the wood parallel 
to' the grain of the wood and also by the spikes. The 
rail is held in place by the spikes in the same manner as 
if it rested on the tie direct, excepting that there are 
usually two spikes on the outer 
edge of the rail. This type sim- 
ply causes the pressure of the rail 
to be spread over a greater area 
of tie and prevents the rail from ' servis tie elate 
cutting the tie, and it is doubtful Fig. 18. 

if there is as much resistance to 

the spreading of the rails as there would be with the 
same spiking without any plate. Within reasonable 
limits the larger the tie plate, the better on soft ties 
under heavy traffic. 

The second type is illustrated by the Goldie tie plate 
shown in Fig. 19. Instead of the wedge-shaped projec- 
tions running the length of the 
plate, as in Fig. 18, there are four 
wedge-shaped points near the 
four corners of the plate, which 
GOLDIE TIE PLATE ^^^ uito thc wood at Hght angles 

Fig. 19. to the grain. The projections or 

claws are on the ends and one 
inch in from the sides, one inch wide, and |- to 1| inches 
long, and have a sharp cutting edge. 

It is essential at the present time to double spike all 
curves, particularly where electric motors with long 
rigid bases are used. In several serious accidents that 
have occurred recently the spikes and rail fastenings 




52 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



were sheared off. It is customary on some railroads 
to use a tie plate of the Goldie type on curves, but 
with four spikes, two on each side of the rail, and 
in some cases without the projections for holding to 
the tie. 

As mentioned above, there are a number of other 
patented tie plates, but the two forms given show the 
essential points of each. Tie plates are made of rolled 
steel, are from -^ to | inch in thickness, and were 
formerly 5 by 8 or 6 by 8 inches, the greater dimension 

being at right angles to 
the rail; but in the latest 
practice larger tie plates 
are used. The Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad uses seve- 
ral standard forms of tie 
plates, the largest being 
6 by 9 by ^ inches for 
intermediate ties and 6 
by 11 by -|4 inches for 
joints. The dimensions for the joint tie plate are 
shown in Fig. 20, for 100 pound rails. These plates 
weigh about 14 pounds per pair. The holes are |- by f 
inch, which allows enough play for the spike so that the 
track can be spiked to true gauge. 

63. Annual Cost of Tie Plates. — Using formula 
(3), T[ 49, and assuming the annual rate of interest to be 
5 per cent., and that tie plates will last thirty years, the 
following table gives the annual cost of a pair of tie 
plates : 









^^H 






V . 


V - 




^-I 






11' 




'*> 


D 






c 


n 



p.r.r. joint tie plate 
Fig. 20. 



PERMANENT WAY. 53 

TABLE XI. 
n = Thirty Years. 

Cost of two tie plates $0.50 $0.60 $0.70 

Annual interest 025 .030 .035 

Annual depreciation 008 .009 .011 

Annual cost 033 .039 .046 

64. Examples in Economy of Using Tie Plates. — 

(a) If an untreated tie costs $0.60 and lasts six years, 
what is the economy of treating it at a cost of $0.30 and 
using tie plates at $0.50 per pair, if the tie will then last 
ten years ? 

From If 50, annual cost of untreated tie $0,118 

" If 51, '' '' ^'treated tie $0,116 

." If 63, " '' ''tie plates 0.033 0.149 

This would not be economical by an annual cost of . . . $0,031 

(6) If an untreated tie costs $1.00 and lasts six years, 
what is the economy of treating it at a cost of $0.30 and 
using tie plates at $0.50 per pair, if the tie will then last 
ten years ? 

Annual cost of untreated tie $0,197 

" " '' treated tie $0,168 

'' " " tie plates 0.033 0.201 

This would not be economical by an annual cost of . . . $0,004 



Article IV. 
RAILROAD RAILS. 



65. Development of Railroad Rails. — The first 
trams or wagons used on railroads had flat, or flange- 
less, tires. The first form of iron rails for flangeless 



54 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



wheels consisted of plates of cast-iron fastened to longi- 
tudinal stringers (Fig. 21), the plates being used to give 
a better wearing surface and less tractive resistance, and 
were three feet long. 

In order to keep the flangeless wheels on the rails, 
angle rails (Fig. 22) were used. These rails were made 
of cast-iron in three-foot lengths, and were supported on 
stone blocks, the vertical flange being placed on the out- 
side, the wheels running on the horizontal inner flange. 
These rails were in use as early as the year 1800. By 
the time of the introduction of the steam locomotive, 
1825, flanged wheels were in use, and the rails had to be 




Y/y/y/z/A 



Fig. 21. 



Fig. 22. 



Fig. 23. 



modified accordingly. The arrangement of the plates 
in Fig. 21 was modified as in Fig. 23, and the angle rail 
in Fig. 22 was arranged so that the wheels ran on the 
top of the vertical flange. Angle rails were in use as 
late as 1837 on the Albany and Schenectady Railway. 

66. Bridge Rails. — The term bridge rail is used to 
distinguish rails that rest upon supports placed at in- 
tervals from rails resting upon longitudinal stringers. 
This distinction has no significance now, as all rails are 
bridge rails, but in the early days of rail design it was of 
vital importance. One of the first attempts to do away 
with the continuous, or stringer, support is shown in the 



PERMANENT WAY. 55 

rail in Fig. 22 and described above. The first attempt 
to design a bridge rail resulted in the ^^ fish-belly ^^ rail 
shown in Fig. 24; it was made of cast-iron in three-foot 
lengths, the rails being fastened in chairs which were 
fastened to and supported by stone blocks. Its name 
was derived from its shape, the belly being designed to 
put the additional metal where it was most needed. 
The fish-belly rail was invented before the steam loco- 
motive came into use, and in 1820, in England, a process 
was invented by which the fish-belly rail could be rolled 
from wrought-iron in lengths of 15 to 18 feet. Until 
1850 the flat wrought-iron strap spiked to longitudinal 
wood or stone stringers, the stringers resting on widely 



Fig. 24. 

spaced cross-ties, was used extensively in the United 
States, as the flat straps were the only form that could 
be rolled here. A number of other forms of rail were 
used here, but they were imported from England. 

67. Stevens Rail. — The first form of the present 
flange rail, or T-rail, section was invented in 1830 by 
Col. Robert L. Stevens, chief engineer of the Camden 
and Amboy Railroad. The Stevens rail was rolled in 
different forms: the form shown in Fig. 25 was used 
on the Boston and Albany Railroad and other roads; 
another form, shown in Fig. 27, was called the pear- 
shaped rails, and was used extensively. In Fig. 28 is 
shown the section of one of the old pear-shaped rails. 

The Stevens rail necessitated a new method of fasten' 



56 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



ing the rail to the ties and a new means of joining the 
rails together, and Col. Stevens, about the same date, in- 
vented the hook-headed spike and the flat splice bar, 
improved forms of both of which are in universal use. 





Fig. 25. 



Fig. 26. 



Fig. 27. 



After 1830 many forms of rails were invented, nearly 
every railroad having its own special form. In 1834, 
the hollow rail, Fig. 26, was invented and used to some 
extent, particularly in England. The first form of the 




Fig. 28. 



hollow rail weighed 44 pounds per yard, the rail being 
Ij inches high, and was fastened to the supports by 
screws, the head of the inner screw being countersunk. 
The later forms of this rail weighed 70 pounds per yard. 



PERMANENT WAY. 57 

were 2J inches high, and were screwed to longitudinal 
wooden stringers 9 by 15 inches in cross-section, the 
stringers being bolted to 5 by 8 inch cross-ties at in- 
tervals of 9 or 10 feet.* 

68. Manufacture of Rails.— The hollow or U- 
shaped rail was first rolled in this country in 1844, and 
the Stevens rail in 1845. Wrought-iron was used for 
rails until 1855, when the first steel rail was made in 
England. Ten years later, 1865, steel rails were rolled 
experimentally, and to order in 1867, at Johnstown, Pa. 
The introduction of the Bessemer process of making 
steel marked the beginning of a great advance in the 
art of rail manufacture, the great reduction in cost of 
steel rails made by the Bessemer process causing them 
to come into general use. Up to 1905 practically all 
the rails in use in the United States were Bessemer rails, 
but open-hearth steel rails are now coming into use. 
Until a comparatively recent date no widespread fault 
was found with the steel rails in use. Of late years an 
increasing number of accidents have been attributed to 
defective rails, and a much greater proportion of rails 
prove defective under traffic. Several reasons have 
been advanced in explanation of the defects, the only 
unanimous verdict being that the rails are not standing 
their work and must be strengthened. One of the causes 
of rail failures is that the rolling loads and speed are now 
greater in proportion to the weight of the rail than 
they were formerly. Some engineers blame the method 
of manufacture, claiming that formerly rails were rolled 
at a lower temperature and passed through the rolls a 

* Roads and Railroads, Gillespie, 1857. 



58 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

greater number of times, thus giving a rail better en- 
abled to withstand work. Others claim that the sec- 
tions now rolled are of such size and shape that every 
particle of the cross-section does not receive the same 
amount of work in rolling; and there is also a differ- 
ence of opinion as to the proper chemical composition 
of rails. 

69. Chemical Composition of Steel Rails. — There 
has been and still is a great deal of discussion, scientific 
investigation, and experiment on the proper chemical 
composition of railroad rails. The main element govern- 
ing the properties of steel is the percentage of carbon, and 
at one time those interested were divided into two par- 
ties, one advocating carbon as low as 0.20 per cent., and 
the other as high as 0.60 per cent., while at present some 
of the specifications call for carbon as high as 0.80 per 
cent. At the present time every prominent scientific 
society interested in the question, the manufacturers of 
steel rails, and many of the railroads have corps of ex- 
perienced men working on the problem of the proper 
composition of steel railroad rails. The ^^ American 
Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Asso- 
ciation,^' the ^^ American Society for Testing Materials, '^ 
and the ^^ American Society of Civil Engineers'' each 
have a standing committee on standard specifications 
for steel rails, and in April, 1908, the Pennsylvania 
Railroad published their new rail sections and speci- 
fications, the specifications being given in Table XII. 

In addition to carbon^ steel rails contain manganese, 
silicon, phosphorus, and sulphur. The amounts of these 
constituents also vary; taking all the specifications to- 



PERMANENT WAY. 



59 



gether, the lowest and highest percentages allowed are 
as follows: manganese, 0.75 to 1.20; silicon, 0.05 to 0.20; 
phosphorus, 0.03 to 0.10; and sulphur shall not be 
greater than 0.06. 



TABLE XII. 



. 


Pounds per Yard. 


Weight of Rail. 


70 to 79 


80 to 89 


90 to 100 




Per cent, of Carbon. 


A. R.E.& M.W.Assoc 

Am. Soc. C. E. (for Bessemer) 
Am. Soc. C. E.( for Basic 
Open Hearth) 


0.40-0.50 
0.50-0.60 

0.53-0.63 


0.43-0.53 
0.53-0.63 

0.58-0.68 
0.45^0.55 
0.70-0.80 


0.45-0.55 
0.55-0.65 

0.65-0.75 


P. R. R. (for Bessemer) 

P. R. R. (for Open Hearth) . . . 


0.45-0.55 
0.70-0.80 



70. Shape of Rail Section. — When the Stevens rail 
came into general use, nearly every railroad had its own 
standard shape, as well as each manufacturer, and at one 
time the rail mills had 188 different patterns which were 
considered standard, and 119 patterns and 27 different 
weights per yard were manufactured. In 1874 Mr. 
Robert H. Sayre invented a rail section quite similar 
to the A. S. C. E. section noAV in use, the principal differ- 
ence being that the Sayre section had sloping sides 
to the head. The great number of different patterns 
of rails in use became so inconvenient that in 1890 
the American Society of Civil Engineers appointed a 
committee of thirteen members to study the question 
of rail section. In 1893 this committee reported a set 
of standard sections for rails varying in weight from 



60 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

40 to 100 pounds per yard. This report was adopted 
by the Society and recommended to the railroad com- 
panies, and is usually referred to as the A. S. C. E. 
section. In a tabulation of reports from fifty-four differ- 
ent railroad companies as to their standards (^^Engineer- 
ing News/' Aug. 30, 1900), thirty-eight railroads use the 
A. S. C. E. section, three use the Dudley section, and 
thirteen use special sections, and probably more than 
75 per cent, of the rails now in use are of the A. S. C. E. 
section. 

In 1893, when the above report was made, 90 pounds 
per yard was considered a very heavy rail, and there 
were no data upon which to base the design of the heavier 
rails. Rails having begun to prove unsatisfactory in an 
increasing ratio, and part of the trouble being attrib- 
uted to the design, in 1905 the American Society of 
Civil Engineers appointed another committee to design 
a new set of standard sections to conform with present 
requirements. 

71. A. S. C. E. Rail Sections. — The durabiUty of a 
railroad rail depends upon its chemical composition, the 
amount of the ingot discarded, the method of manufac- 
ture, and the proportion of its cross-section, viz., its wear- 
ing volume or size of head, its shape, and the moment 
of inertia of its cross-section. The higher the rail, the 
stiffer it is. The base must be wide enough to make the 
rail stand up, and the more metal in the head, the more 
can be worn away before the rail is unfit for ser^dce. 
The A. S. C. E. sections have the same proportions for all 
weights of rail, and have 42 per cent, of the metal in the 
head, 21 per cent, in the web, and 37 per cent, in the 



PERMANENT WAY. 



61 



flange, or base, and the width of the base is the same 
as the height of the rail. 

In Fig. 29 is shown the cross-section of the A. S. C. E. 
rail. The following dimensions are constant for all 
weights of rail: (1) the radius of the top of the head and 
of the sides of the web is 12 inches; (2) the slope of the 
bottom of the head and the top of the base is 13 degrees; 

(3) the radius of the top corners of the head is -^ inch ; 

(4) the radius of the four corners of the web is $ inch; 




Fig. 29. 



l/I? lo'Kadius, 



Pig. 30. 



(5) the lower corners of the head and the four corners 
of the base are rounded off with a radius of y^ inch. 

In Fig. 30 is shown the cross-section of the P. R. R., 
1908, rail. The broken lines in the left side of Fig. 30 
show the A. S. C. E. section aud indicate the differences 
between the two sections. 

The following dimensions vary with the weight of the 
rail: (A) the height; (B) the width of the base; (C) the 
width of the head; (D) the thickness of the web; (E) 
the thickness of the head ; (F) the height of the web ; and 
(G) the thickness of the base. These dimensions are 



62 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



given in the following table for rails weighing from 60 
to 100 pounds per yard : 



TABLE XIII. 





A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


Pounds 

PER 

Yard. 


Height 
of Rail, 
Inches. 


Width 

of 

Base, 

Inches. 


Width 
of Head, 
Inches. 


Thick- 
ness of 
Web, 
Inches. 


Depth 
of Head, 
Inches. 


Height 
of Web, 
Inches. 


Thick- 
ness of 
Base, 
Inches. 


100 
100* 

90 

85* 

80 

70 

60 

50 


5| 

H 

5 

4f 
4i 
31 


5| 
5 

5f 
4f 

4f 
4i 
3i 


2| 
2^ 
2^ 

232 

2i 

24 


1 

If 
fi 
fi 


Iff 
Iff 

hi 


m 

2tV 


1 

i 

tI 



72. Relation between Weight of Engine and 
Weight of Rails. — The weight of rails has increased 
empirically, but for a long time there was a striking 
coincidence between the weight of the locomotive in 
tons and the weight of the rail in pounds per yard, be- 
ginning with a 50-ton locomotive on a 50-pound per yard 
rail, and increasing by increments of ten to the 80-ton 
locomotive on an 80-pound per yard rail; but in recent 
years the weight of the locomotive has increased in a 
much faster ratio, which, as mentioned before, is one 
of the reasons why the composition and proportions 
of the rail must be improved unless the rail is made so 
heavy as to be almost prohibitive. The largest loco- 
motive in use in 1905 weighed 167 tons, exclusive of the 

* P, R. R., 1908, sections. 



PERMANENT WAY. 63 

tender, or had a total weight of 167 tons on the drivers, 
having six pairs of driving-wheels. 

Experiments have been made with high-grade steel 
in the endeavor to procure a longer life under excessive 
use, nickel-steel rails having been tried in at least one 
case, but sufficient time has not elapsed to prove or dis- 
prove the economy of the experiment. In the summer 
of 1907 the Bethlehem Steel Company accepted a large 
contract for a higher grade open-hearth steel rails at a cost 
per ton greater than the market price of ordinary steel 
rails according to newspaper reports. 

73. Length of Rails. — After various shorter lengths 
had been used, a standard length of 30 feet was adopted. 
In an endeavor to reduce the number of joints and pro- 
duce smoother riding, lengths of 45 and 60 feet were 
tried, but have been abandoned. The 60-foot rail was 
hard to load and unload and difficult for the track layers 
to handle; it was also difficult to transport, as it re- 
quired two cars per length of rail. The committee of 
the American Society of Civil Engineers, about the same 
time that the}^ reported the standard sections, recom- 
mended a length of 33 feet, which is rapidly coming into 
general use. The clause of these specifications relating 
to the length of the rail is as follows: ^'The standard 
length of rails shall be 33 feet:'' ''Ten per cent, of the 
entire order will be accepted in shorter lengths, varying 
by even feet to 27 feet, and all No. 1 rails less than 33 
feet long shall be painted green on the ends.'' ^'A 
variation of J inch in length from that specified will be 
allowed." 

74. Inspection and Tests of Rails.— In addition 



G4 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

to the process of manufacture and the chemical composi- 
tion, the majority report of the special committee of the 
American Society of Civil Engineers has the following 
clauses in its specifications for steel rails: Drop test, 
section, weight, length, drilling, straightening, branding, 
and inspection. 

The following quotations from the 1908 Pennsylvania 
Railroad* specifications represent the latest practice: 
^'Ingots shall be kept in a vertical position until ready 
to be rolled, or until the metal in the interior has had 
time to solidify''; ''No 'bled' ingots shall be used"; 
"There shall be sheared from the end of the bloom 
formed from the top of the ingot sufficient discard to 
insure sound rails." 

75. Drop Test. — One drop test shall be made on a 
piece of rail, not less than four and not more than six 
feet long, selected from each blow of steel. The test 
piece shall be taken from the top of the ingot. The rails 
shall be placed head upward on the supports, and the 
sections shall be subjected to the following impact tests 
under a free falling weight : 

70 to 79 pound rails 18 feet. 

80 to 89 " " 20 " 

90 to 100 " " 22 " 

If any rail breaks, when subjected to the drop test, 
two additional tests may be made of other rails from the 
same blow of steel, also taken from the top of the ingots, 
and if either of these latter rails fails, all the rails of the 
blow which they represent will be rejected ; but if both 
of these additional test pieces meet the requirements, 
* Railroad Gazette, April 17, 1908. 



PERMANENT WAY. 



65 




all the rails of the blow which they represent will be 
accepted. 

The drop-test machine, Fig. 31, shall have a tup 
of 2000 pounds' weight, the striking face of which shall 
have a radius of not more than 5 inches, and the test 
rail shall be placed head upward on solid supports 3 feet 
apart. The anvil block shall weigh at least 20,000 
pounds, and the supports shall be part of, or firmly se- 
cured to, the anvil. The re- 
port of the drop test shall state 
the atmospheric temperature 
at the time the test was made. 

76. Inspection of Section 
and Weight. — Unless other- 
wise specified, the section of 
the rail shall be the American 
Standard, recommended by 
the American Society of Civil 
Engineers, and shall conform, 
as accurately as possible, to 
the templet furnished by the 
railroad company, consistent 

with the paragraph relative to specified weight. A 
variation in height of 5^4 inch less, or 3^ inch greater, 
than the specified height, and -^ inch in width will be 
permitted. The section of rail shall conform to the 
finishing dimensions. 

The weight of the rails will be maintained as nearly as 

possible, after complying with the preceding paragraph, 

to that specified in contract. A variation of one-half 

of 1 'per cent, for an entire order will be allowed. 

5 




Fig. 31. 



66 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

Rails will be accepted and paid for according to actual 
weights. 
For length see If 73. 

77. Inspection of Drilling and Straightening. — 

Circular holes for splice bars shall be drilled in accordance 
with the specifications of the purchaser. The holes 
shall conform accurately to the drawing and dimensions 
furnished in every respect, and must be free from burrs. 

Care must be taken in hot-straightening the rails, 
and it must result in their being left in such a condition 
that they shall not vary throughout their entire length 
more than 5 inches from a straight line in any direction, 
when delivered to the cold-straightening presses. Those 
which vary beyond that amount, or have short kinks, 
shall be classed as second quality rails and be so stamped. 

Rails shall be straight in line and surface when fin- 
ished — the straightening being done while cold — smooth 
on head, sawed square at ends, variation to be not more 
than -3^2- inch, and, prior to shipment, shall have the burr 
occasioned by the saw-cutting removed, and the ends 
made clean. No. 1 rails shall be free from injurious 
defects and flaws of all kinds. 

78. No. 2 Rails. — No. 2 rails shall be accepted up 
to 5 per cent, of the whole order. They shall not have 
flaws in their heads of more than I inch, or in the flange 
of more than ^ inch in depth, and, in the judgment of 
the inspector, these shall not be so numerous or of such 
a character as to render them unfit for recognized second- 
quality rail uses. The ends of No. 2 rails shall be painted 
white, and shall have two prick-punch marks on the side 
of the web near the heat number brand, and placed so as 



PERMANENT WAY. 67 

not to be covered by the splice-bars. Rails from heats 
which fail under the drop-hammer test shall not be 
accepted as No. 2 rails. 

.79. Branding. — The name of the maker, the weight 
of the rail, and the month and year of manufacture shall 
be rolled in raised letters on the side of the web ; and the 
number of the blow shall be plainly stamped on each 
rail, where it will not subsequently be covered by the 
splice-bars. 

80. Privileges of Inspectors. — The inspector rep- 
resenting the purchaser shall have free entry to the 
works of the manufacturer at all times when the contract 
is being filled, and shall have all reasonable facilities 
afforded him by the manufacturer to satisfy him that the 
finished material is furnished in accordance with the terms 
of these specifications. All tests and inspection shall be 
made at the place of manufacture prior to shipment. 

The manufacturer shall furnish the inspector, daily, 
with carbon determinations for each blow, and a com- 
plete chemical analysis every twenty-four hours, repre- 
senting the average of the other elements contained in 
the steel, for each day and night turn. These analyses 
shall be made on drillings taken from small test ingots. 

81 . Life of a Rail. — Rails wear out much more rapidly 
on curves than on tangents; the sharper the curve, 
the quicker it wears out. On account of the great 
variation in the amount and class of traffic that passes 
over different roads, the length of time a rail lasts con- 
veys very little idea of the actual service it has given. 
Twenty years on a light traffic road would not be equiv- 
alent to five years on a road with heavy traffic. It is 



68 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

more logical to estimate the life of a rail in terms of 
millions of tons of traffic passing over it. In England one 
set of data showed a life of 17^ millions of tons. For 
the above reasons it is practically impossible for a manu- 
facturer to guarantee the life of a rail. In some instances 
it is less than the life of the tie, possibly lasting only 
four or five years, and replacing the rail also shortens 
the life of the tie, owing to the injury caused by the 
additional spiking. 



Article V. 
RAIL JOINTS. 



82. Definition of Rail Joints. — The rail joint has 
been the subject of more thought and discussion on the 
part of railroad men, and more has been written on the 
subject than in almost any other part of railroad track. 
The ideal joint is one that will make the rails act the 
same as if it were one continuous rail. Many devices 
have been patented and experiments made in the en- 
deavor to accomplish this, but the rail joint still remains 
weaker than the rail. This is shown by the fact that 
the ties near the joint require more tamping to keep them 
in surface than the ties near the center of the rail. With 
new rails and splice-bars fitted and screwed up properly, 
for a time there will be little or no give to the joint, but 
under the continued hammering of heavy traffic, even 
with the greatest care and attention, the parts will 



PERMANENT WAY. 



69 



£ 



O OJIO 



move and wear against each other, and the joint will 
gradually weaken. 

Strictly speaking, the term rail joint refers solely to the 
ends of the rails, but the general use of the term means 
everything that helps to connect the rails. Fig. 32, 
the shape of ends of rails, splice-bars, bolts, nut locks, 
manner of resting on the 
ties, and the position of 
the joint in the track. 

83. Shape of Ends of 
Rails.— The A. S. C. E. 

specifications require the ends to be sawed off square, and 
this is the form used in the United States. On accoimt of 
the space that must be left between the ends of the rails 
to provide for expansion, a blow is struck by each wheel 
as it leaves the end of one rail and strikes the end of the 
adjacent rail. The bad effects of this space and the accom- 
panying damage have been greatly exaggerated in the 



Fig. 32. 




z: 




Fig. 33. 



past and have led to the trial of a number of especially 
formed ends to obviate the defect. In the United States 
the miter, or Sayre joint. Fig. 33, has been used on the 
Lehigh Valley Railroad, and can still be seen in some 
of the old rails. There were several objections to this 
joint. Owing to excessive heat or the creeping of the 
rails, the ends of the rails are liable to push past each 



70 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

other sufficiently to be damaged by the wheel flanges, 
even if not far enough to cause a derailment by the wheel 
flanges striking the projection and mounting the rail. 
It was very difficult to cut the rail in laying switches or 
in replacing a length of rail other than the standard 

length. The lap joint shown in 
Fig. 34 was tried in Europe, and 
in at least one case proved a fail- 



Pj^ 34 ure. The argument in favor of 

these joints was that the wheel 
would rest on the second rail before it had entirely left the 
first rail, thus preventing the blow due to the square 
rail ends. If the space between the ends of the rails is 
made as small as possible and the joint is strong and the 



Fig. 35. 



rails are of good quality, practically no damage is done 
to the head of the rail, the main disadvantage being, 
as stated above, that the ties under the joint need more 
tamping and the joint must be kept screwed tight. 



Fig. 36. 



84. Square and Broken Joints.— All rail joints are 
divided into two general classes, i. e., square joints. Fig. 
36, and broken joints, Fig. 35. Both methods are used. 



PERMANENT WAY. 



71 



There is considerable difference of opinion as to which 
is better, or which makes the train ride easier, but broken 
joints are in most general use. Square joints can not be 
held to strictly with rails of uniform length if there are 
curves in the track. On a sharp curve or a long light curve, 
the outer rail of the track is longer, and if square joints 
are used on the tangent, the joints will be broken before 
much of the curve has been laid. If broken joints are 
used on tangent, there will be points where the joints 
come square on a curve. The argument against broken 
joints is that a wheel causes the rail to sink at a joint more 
than the opposite wheel on the middle of its rail, thus 
causing the train to sway sideways. 



£ 



I o o o o o 



3 



Fig. 37. 

85. Suspended and Supported Joints. — There is 
considerable difference of opinion and discussion of the 
question of suspended vs. supported joints. A sus- 
pended joint is shown in Fig. 32, in which the ties are 
placed a little less than the regular spacing apart, so 
that there is a tie under each end of the splice-bar. A 
supported joint is shown in Fig. 37, in which one tie 
comes directly under the ends of the rails, and the space 
between this tie and the tie next to it on each side is 
considerably less than the regular spacing, and the splice- 
bars have less bearing on the outside ties. The objection 
to supported joint is that the middle tie does part of the 
work of the joint, and the work that comes on the middle 



72 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

tie is so much more than comes on the other ties, par- 
ticularly when a weaker joint is used, that it is difficult 
to keep it in surface. The middle tie prevents the use 
of many of the stronger forms of splice-bars. Most of the 
joints in use are suspended joints. 

86. Bonded and Insulated Joints. — Rail joints are 
further divided into bonded and insulated joints. This 
is necessary in connection with electric automatic 
signals. If a joint could be kept tight and free from 
rust, probably no other form of bond would be necessary ; 
but this is too uncertain, and in order to provide a good 
bond, various means are used. One of the most common 
methods of bonding the rails is shown in Fig. 38, holes 

being drilled in the rails just 
jf^ ( beyond the ends of the splice- 
bars and copper wires at- 
FiG 38 ""™* tached by means of copper 

plugs. One or two wires are 
used, both wires being outside of the splice-bar, or one 
outside and one between the splice-bar and the rail, as 
shown in the figure. 

An insulated joint is so designed that there is no 
chance for the electric current to pass the joint. Op- 
posite joints on the two rails of the track are insulated, 
and the rails are bonded by copper wires across the track 
in the same general manner as shown in Fig. 38, thus com- 
pleting a circuit. The regular joint splice cannot be 
insulated and a special splice is always used. An in- 
sulated joint in common use is shown in Fig. 39. It 
consists of a channel-shaped piece of rolled steel with 
unequal legs, abcdj with bolt holes spaced the same 




PERMANENT WAY. 



73 



distance apart as in the ordinary splice-bars, and is also 
the same length as the ordinary joint. A non-conductor, 
such as rubber, is placed between the ends of the rails 
at e, between the wooden blocks and the channel, be- 
tween the blocks and the rail, between the base of the 
rail and the channel, and also around the bolt, so that 
the bolt cannot touch the web of the rail. Wooden blocks 



O O O O O O 





J 






Fig. 39. 

are fitted in as shown in the figure, and all are bolted 
together. By this means the rails are joined together 
by a strong splice without any possibility of the electric 
current passing from one rail to the next one. 

Another form of insulated splice in common use is shown 
(Fig. 40). It consists of an angle iron abc and two blocks 



I 



Ijo ^ o Olio o 




Fig. 40. 



of wood fitted in as shown, with a non-conductor inside 
the angle iron and around the bolt. The inside plate 
de is made in three forms. The simplest arrangement is 
sho^vn in the first sketch of Fig. 40, and consists of two 
pieces of rectangular fiat steel bar with a space of about 
one-half inch between the ends of the bars at the center 
of the splice, and in some cases an angle bar is cut in half 



74 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

and used instead of the plain bars. In the second form 
one rectangular bar extending the entire length of the 
splice is used ; and in the third form an ordinary angle bar 
is used. A non-conductor is placed between the ends 
of the rails in all cases. 

87. Splice-bars. — Most of the attempts to strengthen 
the rail joint have been along the line of strengthening 
the splice-bars. This feature of the rail joint has passed 
through four stages, as follows : First, chairs which rested 
on the tie and into which the rails rested; second, fish 




Fig. 41. 

plates ; third, angle bars ; and fourth, bridge joints. This 
development has been necessitated by the increasing 
weight of locomotives and rolling loads. 

In Fig. 41 is shown a piece of one of the earliest forms 
of the pear-shaped rail with its chair. The weakness of 
this form of joint is shown by the condition of the end 
of the rail, particularly of the head of the rail. 

The first form of fish plate is shown in Fig. 42a, and 
consisted of a rectangular strap of wrought-iron with four 
holes in it; practically all the strength of the joint de- 
pended upon the bolts. The rectangular strap was 



PERMANENT WAY. 



75 



followed by the splice-bars shown in Fig. 426, the top 
and bottom edges of which fitted against the bottom 
of the head and the top of the base of the rail respectively, 
and the center of the bar curved away from the web of 



#0000 



^ 




Fig. 42a. 



the rail, which gave the bolt a better chance to hold the 
bars firmly. In this form the splice-bars bore most of 
the stress in the joint, the bolts simply holding the parts 
of the joint firmly together. 




Fig. 426. 

Under increasing loads the last-mentioned form of 
splice-bar proved too weak, and angle splice-bars were 
invented and are now in use on most of the railroad 
track in the United States. 



O O O Q O Q 



=0= 




Fig. 43. 

There are a number of forms of the angle splice-bar, 
the principal variation being in the length and shape 
of the lower leg of the angle at a. Fig. 43, some reaching 
only as far as the edge of the base of the rail and others 
as shown in the figure. At the same time that angle 



76 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

splice-bars came into use a change was made from four 
bolts to six bolts per joint. 

88. Bridge Joints. — Any form of angle bar joint 
in which the angle bar projects below the base of the 
rail may be called a bridge joint. Many forms of bridge 
joints have been invented, the one in most general use 
being the Bonzano joint, which is shown in Fig. 44. 
The lower leg of the angle bar is horizontal over the ties 
and is bent into a vertical position between the ties, 
as shown by the broken lines in Fig. 44. Wliile the 
amount of metal in the Bonzano splice-bars is the same 
as in ordinary angle splice-bars of the same dimensions. 



n — II ' 




O 


o o o o o 

— TT : ' Ft 




' — ' 




-^^— ^ ^ ° ' 






Fig. 44. 

bending the flanges down distributes the metal at the 
middle of the joint so that the moment of inertia of the 
cross-section of the joint is greater and adds considerably 
to the strength and stiffness of the joint. 

The ''M. W. 100 per cent, splice'' was invented by an 
engineer of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and derives its 
name from having been designed to give the same strength 
and stiffness as would be given by a continuous rail, or 
an efficiency of 100 per cent. The elevation, plan, and 
a section of this splice are shown in Fig. 45. The ends 
of this splice are shaped as shown by the shaded portions 
in the section AB, which corresponds to the splice shown 
in Fig. 43, without the horizontal projections a on the 



PERMANENT WAY. 



77 



angle bars; the middle third of the splice is the same as 
the ends with the legs projecting diagonally downward 
in addition. The plan in Fig. 45 shows only the general 
outlines of the splice-bars, no attempt being made to 





■ 


A 




! 1 


^ 




o o o o o 

1 — 1 


.-£1 






ELEVATION 

• 




^ 


1 


\r-~ y 1 


u 


1 


^ 


::.xv::: 


fi 


1 


A ^\ 

n -;■' 


n 


\ 




PLAN 


B 




SECTION A-B 



Fig. 45. 



show the bolts, etc., as the additional lines would ob- 
scure the principal feature. This joint is much stronger 
and stiff er than the joint in Fig. 44, as additional metal is 
added at the center, where it is most needed, and although 
the lower legs of the splice-bars are shorter near the ends 
of the bars, they are proportionately 
strong enough. 

89. Continuous Splice and Perma- 
nent Splice. — A cross-section of the con- 
tinuous sphce is shown in Fig. 46, the 
difference between this form and the ordinary angle bar 
splice being the additional horizontal parts which grip 
the base of the rail. 

The permanent splice is shown in Fig. 47. The lower 
legs of the angle bars are beveled so that they fit neatly 




Fig. 46. 



78 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



into the clamp be which holds the joint together and is 
as long as the clear space between the ties. The princi- 
pal feature of this splice is that no bolts are used. 

There are many special forms of splices besides those 
described in this article, but the forms described illus- 
trate the general types of the rail joints, or splices, used 
in the United States. 



L 



Jtzzr 



I 



? 




Fig. 47. 

90. Splice Bolts. — After the angle bar splice came 
into general use and the rail was made heavier, six bolts 
were used in a splice instead of four. One of the heaviest 
angle bars is shown in Fig. 48, the six bolts being spaced 
as shown, at intervals of four, five, and six inches, the 
total length of the splice being thirty inches. The bolts 



r* 













-30 




— >i 





-6-- 


~^^ 


-5- 


"6 




-^-"-^- 






-rtt 












i 


1—6- 


— i 












HM 



Fig. 48. 



near the center of the splice are placed closer together, 
as they stand a greater proportion of the stress in the 
joint. The end holes in the splice-bar are drilled at a 
distance of two inches from the end of the bar. 

There is not a great amount of uniformity in the size 
and shape of splice bolts used by different railroads. 
In general they vary from | to 1 inch in diameter and 



PERMANENT WAY. 



79 



from 4 to SJ inches in length, exclusive of the head. 
There is also no uniformity of practice in proportioning the 
diameter of the bolt to the weight of the rail. The usual 
diameter of bolts is |, I, or 1 inch, but some railroads 
use {f and yf of an inch. The length of the bolt depends 
upon the style of the splice weight of the rail, the thick- 
ness of the nut lock, and the thickness of the nut. 

In Fig. 49 are shown three views of a standard bolt 
and two views of the nut for an 85-pound rail splice. 
The oval shoulder of the bolt corresponds to the thickness 
of the splice-bar and fits into the oval-shaped hole in the 



k-l-J/gV^ 




Fig. 49. 



splice-bar, thus preventing the bolt from turning and 
thereby loosening the nut. The holes in both splice-bars 
are made oval in shape and y^g- inch larger than the 
shoulder of the bolt, which allows the bolts to be put 
in with the heads facing either way. There is a differ- 
ence of opinion as to which way the bolts in a splice should 
face. Some railroads face all the nuts in a joint toward 
the center of the track, others face them outward, and 
some face half of them outward and half inward, alter- 
nating them. In a single-track road it is much easier 
for a trackwalker to inspect the bolts if all the nuts face 




80 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

inward, but the objection is that in case of a derailment 
a wheel might shear off all the bolts in a joint, thus adding 
to the chances of a serious accident. For this reason 
some railroads face half of the bolts in a splice each 
way, as it is then practically impossible to shear off all 
the bolts. 
91. Nut-locks. — If there is smy movement to the 
parts connected by a bolt, there is a tendency 
for the nut to work loose. There is a decided 
movement in the best laid and maintained 
Fig. 50a. track, particularly at a rail splice, conse- 
quentl}^ nut-locks must be used on every bolt. 
Nut-locks are of various forms; the simplest and the 
form in most general use is shown in Fig. 50a. They 
are made of spring-steel, the steel being rectangular 
in cross-section and bent into a circular form and then 
hardened. The inside diameter is made large enough 
to slip loosely over the bolt, and the cross-section varies 
from about s X -^ to y^ X y\ of an inch, the greater 
dimension being at right angles to 
the bolt. The ends are cut beveled, 
sharpened, and one is bent upward 
and the other downward, thus tend- Fig. 506. 

ing to grip both the nut and the 
splice-bar and to prevent both the nut and the nut-lock 
from turning. 

A spring-nut is shown in Fig. 50&. One leg of this 
nut is too long to allow a complete turn of the nut to be 
made, consequently the nut is tightened by turning the 
bolt by means of its hexagonal head. 

Numerous other forms of nut-locks are in common 



PERMANENT WAY. 81 

use, a common form being similar to that shown in Fig. 
50a, except that it is «^ shaped and is placed on two 
adjacent bolts. 

92. Bolt Holes in Rails. — The bolt holes in rails are 
drilled I of an inch larger than the diameter of the bolt, 
being 1 inch in diameter for a f-inch bolt. For a six- 
bolt joint the holes in the rails are spaced as shown in 
Fig. 51, the end hole being lf|- inches from the end of 
the rail, and since the corresponding holes in the splice- 
bar are 4 inches apart, the space between the ends of the 
rails may be varied so that the proper allowance can be 




Fig. 51. 

made for expansion and contraction of the rail due to 
changes of temperature. 

93. Expansion Shims. — In laying rails expansion 
shims should be used in order to get the proper distance 
between the ends of the rails. Shims are made of wood or 
wrought-iron. Wooden shims are not very satisfactory 
on account of being crushed if the rail strikes them hard, 
which destroys the shim and gives irregular spacing. 
In using wooden shims it is customary to have strips of 
wood, about like a lath, hold it until the rail is pushed 
against it, and then break it off, the piece of wood being 
allowed to remain. 

Wrought-iron shims are made in sets varjdng in thick- 
ness by sixteenths from ^- to ^ inch. They are 1 
shaped and their thickness is plainly marked on them. 
6 



82 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

When laying the rails, a shim of proper thickness is hung 
upon the head of the rail already laid, and after the next 
rail is pushed against it and the joint screwed up, the ' 
shim is removed. 

94. Space between Ends of Rails.— The proper dis- 
tance between the ends of the rail or the thickness of the 
shim is computed in the following manner: A 33-foot 
rail will vary in length per degree of temperature Fahr. 
0.0000065 X 33 X 12 = 0.0026 inches. 

If the temperature of the rail is liable to vary from 110° 

to — 20° F., and the track is being laid at a temperature 

of 70° F., then there should be a thickness of shim of 

(110 — 70) (0.0026) = 0.104, or i inch approximately, 

and the joint should allow a maximum range of move- 
ment of 

(110 + 20) (0.0026) = 0.33, or | inch approximately. 

The play of { inch of the bolts in the holes and the -3^2" 
inch between the ends of the rails provide amply for 
this variation. In most cases the temperature of rail may 
be taken the same as the temperature of the air, but it is 
quite easy to get the temperature of the rail, which in 
many cases will be higher than that of the air. 



PERMANENT WAY. 83 

♦ Article VI. 
RAILROAD SPIKES. 

95. Railroad Spikes. — ^The functions of the spike 
are^ — (1) to keep the rails from spreading, and (2) to hold 
the rail to the tie. There has been considerable discus- 
sion as to which of these two functions of the spike is 
more important. In this country the ordinary railroad 
spike, called the common spike, or simply spike, is uni- 
versally used. Any one who watches the action of spikes 
in the track will soon come to the conclusion that the 
holding of the rail to the tie cannot be of vital importance ; 
except in a newly spiked and well-ballasted and main- 
tained track, it will be found that most of the spikes 
have been pulled up a short distance. The track gang 
simply keeps driving them down again. A certain 
amount of elasticity is necessary in a track; the very 
best track will give an appreciable amount imder the 
loads passing over it, and a small movement of the spike 
may not, under all circumstances, be a serious fault. It 
must be kept in mind, however, that most of the conclu- 
sions have been drawn for hardwood ties, oak, long-leaf 
yellow pine, or chestnut. As the hardwood ties become 
scarce and softer woods are used, it will be necessary to 
pay more attention to the holding force of spikes. 

A well-designed spike should give a maximimi holding 
force with a minimum injury to the tie. There are two 
general forms of railroad spikes, viz., the driven spike 
and the screw spike. 



84 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



96. Common and Channeled Spikes. — ^The common 
spike is shown in Fig. 52a; the shape of the head is an 
irregular oval, the cross-section of tMe main part of the 
spike is -3^ or f of an inch square, the clear length is 5, 
5^, or 6 inches, and the end may be wedge-shaped, 
as shown, or beveled, as shown in Fig. 53, and from | 




±^^ 



nsT 



B 

Fig. 52a. 



to If inches long. The angle cba, Fig. 52a, which the 
lower face of the head of the spike be makes with the hori- 
zontal (when driven) b a, must be the same as the slope of 
the base of the rail, thirteen degrees, so that there will 
be perfect contact between the spike and the rail when the 
spike is driven vertically. The general custom is to use 



! 



Dl 



-5)i- 



ri8 I 



Fig. 52&. 



5-inch spikes in hard wood and 5J-inch in soft wood 
when tie plates are not used, and spikes J inch longer 
when tie plates are used. 

The channeled spike is shown in Fig. 526, the only differ- 
ence between it and the common spike being in the size 
and shape of the cross-section, the open side of the channel 



PERMANENT WAY. 85 

being on the face opposite the edge of the rail. A 
series of tests* show the channeled spike to have about 
12 per cent, more holding force than the common spike. 

The common spike is heavier than the channeled spike, 
165 common spikes 5^ inches long weighing 100 pounds, 
and 200 channeled spikes weighing 100 poimds. 

97. Points of Spikes. — One of the most important 
things in a spike is the shape of its point. If the point 
is too blunt, it damages the tie considerably in driving, 
the fibers of the wood being injured for quite a distance 
around the spike, which will allow moisture to enter and 
cause the tie to decay. On the other hand, if the point 
is too long, while there is less injury to the tie, a large 
portion of its holding force is lost. The point of the spike 
must be symmetrical in order to insure accurate driving, 
otherwise it will either crowd the rail out of true gauge 
or not hold firmly against the rail, which will allow the 
wheels to crowd the rail out of gauge. 

The common spike has a simple wedge-shaped point, 
but many other and more elaborately shaped points have 
been designed. The wedge-shaped points are either 
rolled or cut with a die . When cut with a die, the point 
may be made sharper, but the edges are liable to be 
uneven, which tends to prevent the spike from driving 
true. The edges of a rolled spike will be slightly rounded, 
but perfectly uniform in shape. 

In Fig. 53 is shown the poiat of the Goldie spike, the 
first sketch in the figure showing the wearing face, or the 
face toward the rail, and the second sketch shows the 
side view. The point of the spike is IJ inches long, the 

* Circular 46, Forest Service, 1906. 



86 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



lower part being beveled for a distance of | of an inch 
as shown, making a sharp point. 

In Fig. 54 is ghown the standard spike of the N. Y. C. 
and H. R. R. R., for Carolina pine ties. It is quite 
similar to the Goldie spike, the proportions being differ- 
ent, the main point being longer and the sharpened part 
of the point being shorter. 

The point of the Pennsylvania R. R. standard spike 
is shown in Fig. 55. It is 1 J inches long and is rolled. 



Fig. 53. 




\*-^-*\ h-%-» 




Fig. 54. 



Fig. 55. 



98. Screw Spikes. — Screw spikes have been used only 
in an experimental way in this country. As stated in 
1|95, common spikes will be gradually pulled up a 
short distance, due to the undulations of the track under 
wheel loads. This is not serious for hardwood ties, but 
is very serious for soft-wood ties. In soft ties the spike 
not only pulls out easier, but it works loose, destroying 
the fibers of the surrounding wood to such an extent that 
the spike will no longer hold, necessitating the driving 
of an additional spike, or driving the old spike in a new 
place, in order to prevent the rails from spreading. 
In addition to not holding the rail properly, this allows 
the water to readily enter the injured fibers of the wood, 
giving a much greater tendency to decay the tie. 



PERMANENT WAY. 



87 



Close observation of a passing train shows that there 
are four supports which undergo depression, viz., the 
rail, the tie, the ballast, and the roadbed, each acting 
in the order named. The movement of the rail is much 
the greatest, and that of the tie comes next. The de- 
pression of the ballast and roadbed is felt rather than 
seen. These movements prove the necessity of such 
a fastening for the rail to the tie as will allow no ob- 
struction to the wave movement of rail sufficient to lift 
the tie from its bed in the ballast; otherwise were the 
rail and tie held so firmly together that the tie would work 
up and down in the ballast with every vertical movement 




Fig. 56. 



of the rail, this would disturb and in some kinds of ballast 
destroy the ballast, and would result in what is commonly 
known as mud-pumping ties. This tendency of the spikes 
to work loose has, since the beginning of railroads, in- 
spired men to invent a device to overcome this defect, 
and has led to the recommendation of screw spikes. 

Screw spikes have taken two general forms, viz., a 
pointed lag screw, and a blunt screw (Fig. 56). In cir- 
cular 46, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agricul- 
ture, are given the results of a number of experiments on 
the holding force of railroad spikes in wooden ties. The 
common, channeled, and screw spikes were driven into 



88 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

white oak, red oak, loblolly pine, hardy catalpa, common 
catalpa, and chestnut. A comparison was also made 
on the relative holding force of clear wood and knotty 
wood, also between wood steamed at various pressures 
and natural wood; the latter being for the purpose of 
showing the effect of tie treatment on the holding force. 
The results show that the screw spike has in some cases 
from two to three times the holding force of driven spikes, 
except in loblolly pine they were equal. Steaming 
does not affect the holding force seriously. 

Screw spikes are screwed into a hole that is bored with 
the same diameter as the main body of the spike. The 
spike in Fig. 56 would require a hole f inch in diameter. 
This method was used in the above tests. The above 
tests are interesting, but of doubtful utiHty. If the 
screw spike would have holding force enough to hold the 
rail firmly to the tie under all conditions, it would be of 
immense advantage; but if they should be pulled a short 
distance, just enough to destroy the hold of the threads 
of the screw, the result would be far worse than in the 
case of the driven spike ; it would not only be difficult to 
make the screw hold, but the tie would be injured much 
more, with the accompanying tendency to decay. The 
practical way to make a test of this kind would be to use 
the screw spikes in a stretch of track and see how they 
worked. The Illinois Central screw spikes (Fig. 56) 
weigh 85 spikes to 100 pounds. 

99. Wear of Spikes. — In addition to the possibility 
of the spike shearing off under unusual strain, if the rail 
works loose, the inner face of the spike is worn away, as 
shown by the shaded portion of Fig. 57. To counteract 



PERMANENT WAY, 89 

this decrease of cross-section additional metal has been 
placed in the opposite face of the spike, as shown by the 
slanting portion a 6 of the same figure. This additional 
metal must never be put on the inner face of Jthe spike, 
next the rail, as it would make the spike difficult to drive 
properly. It is very important that a spike should have 
this additional amount of metal to increase the strength 
against shearing, as several accidents have happened 
recently in which the spikes were sheared off for several 
rail lengths. In any case the rails will spread an amount 
equal to the depth to which the spike is worn. 



Fig. 57. 

100, Common VS. Screw Spikes. — Where the common 
spike presents a square surface to the edge of the rail 
and the fiber of the tie, the screw spike presents a round 
surface, which makes the tendency of the rails to spread 
greater with screw spikes, as the wear will be greater and 
the lateral pressure on the rail will cause a greater tendency 
to crush the fibers of the wood and allow the screw spike 
to move laterally in the tie. This difference will not 
be so noticeable where the screw spikes are shaped 
as in Fig. 56. 

The lifting of the tie by the rail will in some cases tear 
the heads off the screw spikes where the common spike 
would pull out a short distance; therefore the common 
spike is better adapted to the wave motions of the track. 



90 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

Special machines are necessary to insert screw spikes, 
making them both more costly and causing more delay 
than the common spikes in track-laying. 

In hardwood ties in relaying rail and regauging track 
it has been found that after a certain time the thread 
of the screw spike united with the fiber of the wood by 
rust, and that the head of the screw spike will twist off 
before the screw will move, which requires a new spike 
to be driven in another place, with the consequent 
damage to the tie. These reasons make the common 
spike a favorite with trackmen and maintenance-of- 
way officials. 

loi. Rail Braces. — Rail braces are used to prevent 
the outer rail on a curve from overturning or spreading. 
If sound ties are used and the rail is double spiked or the 
proper form of tie plate is used, rail braces will be unnec- 
essary; but if there are no tie plates and the spikes begin 
to hold poorly, rail braces must be used. The number 
of braces to use per rail length will depend upon the degree 
of curve and the condition of the ties. If the curve 
is sharper than a six-degree and the ties are poor, it may 
be necessary to have a brace on every tie, and almost 
certainly there should be a brace on every other tie; if 
the ties are in fair condition, three or four braces per rail 
length may be enough. The plainest and smallest rail 
brace for an intermediate tie is shown in Fig. 58a, and is 
made of rolled steel. There are many forms of rail 
braces, most of them being larger and more elaborate in 
design than the form shown. 

In the elevation Fig. 58a the surface represented by 
a h fits against the lower face of the head of the rail, b c 



PERMANENT WAY. 91 

against the web, and c d against the flange of the rail. 
Rail braces are used on the main rail opposite switch- 
point rails, in which case they are shaped as in Fig. 586, 



a b 





END VIEW 



yQe 



f 



PLAN 

Fig. 58a. Fig. 586. 

the part e f being long enough to be spiked at the end 
and to allow the switch-point rail to slide back and forth 
over it. 



CHAPTER III. 
TURNOUTS. 



Article VII. 

POINT SWITCHES. 

102. Definition of Point Switch. — ^A turnout or 
switch is a device by means of which a train may pass 
from the main track to another line or to a siding. Fig. 
59 shows the outline of a point switch which is open for 
the train to turn off of the main track. Fig. 60 shows 
the outline of a point switch in which the main line is in 
operation. Except in case of absolute necessity, the 
switch is always placed so that the train on the main line 
runs into the heel of the switch as indicated by the arrow 
in Fig. 60. With the best of care it is difficult to keep 
the point of the switch rails a and a' firmly against the 
rail, and if it should become battered or loose and a train 
run into from a direction opposite that indicated by the 
arrow, there would be grave danger of a derailment. 
The above discussion holds good only on a double-track 
railroad; on a single track, of course, there is no choice. 
If the switch is at a point where all trains run slowly, 
then running into the point of a switch does not make 
much difference. 

92 



TURNOUTS. 



93 



Switches are of two general types: viz., point switches 
and stub switches. A point switch is shown in Figs. 
59 and 60. The rail C C is continuous, but the rail 





5^^="^— 


w 






A 






b 


n' 










'b' 






— C 



Fig. 59. 

A A is bent at a so that it becomes part of the turnout 
rail A a B. 

103. Stub Switch. — The stub switch, Fig. 61, is a 
crude device only placed in sidings that turn out from 




a siding that is not used much. Both the main rails 
are broken and the parts a b and a' V of the main rail 
are not spiked, all the rest being spiked. Fig. 61 shows 
the switch set for the turnout; when set for the main 




line, the rails a b and a' 6' are pulled over into the position 
indicated by the dotted lines. Formerly the stub switch 
was used extensively, but now it can be found only 
on tracks that are used very little. 



94 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

The principal objection to the point switch is that 
one of the main rails is broken. A number of devices 
have been patented by which a turnout could be made 
without breaking either main rail, but no device has 
proved successful enough to replace the point switch. 
The Wharton switch carried the wheels over the main 
rail by means of raised inclined planes, and was exten- 
sively used for a number of years, but it proved defective 
in that the rails forming the device were liable to turn 
over, causing considerable extra expense in maintenance. 

104. Definitions. — In Fig. 62 is shown a circular arc 
turnout from a straight track, the center of the turnout 
curve being at 0. 

The gauge line is the projection of the inside face of 
the head of the rail, the rails in the figure being repre- 
sented by their gauge lines. 

The gauge of tracks g, is the distance between gauge lines 
of the rails of a track. 

The point of switch is the point A, also C, at which the 
turnout curve begins or is tangent to the main rail. 

The leaHy 1, is the distance A B from the point of switch 
to the point of frog. 

The frog distance is the distance C B from the point 
of switch on the outer rail to the point of frog. 

The point of frog is at the intersection of the guage 
lines at B. 

The switch-point rails ^ or switch points, S, are the parts 
AKandCG. 

The stub lead is the distance B H from the heel of the 
switch points to the point of frog. 

The throw of the switch, t, is the distance between 



TURNOUTS. 



95 



gauge lines at the heel of the switch points, E G and 
HK. 

The radius of the turnout, r, is the radius of the center 
line of the turnout track. 




Fig. 62. 

The frog angle, F, is the angle between the gauge lines 
at B. 

The frog number is the ratio of the distance B P^ Fig. 63, 
to the distance M N, B P being the distance from the 
point of frog to any point P, and M N being the distance 




Fig. 63. 



between gauge lines measured through P and normal to 
BP. 

105. The Lead in Terms of the Gauge and Frog 
Angle. — In Fig. 62 draw the radial lines C, E, 
and B, the tangent D N through B, and the line C P 



96 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

through B, then the angles COB = MBN = LDB = F, 
C B D = A B C = J F, and the distance C D = D B. 
From the triangle A B C we have 

A B = A C cot A B C, or 

1 = g cot J F (5). 

io6. The Lead in Terms of the Gauge and Frog 
Number. — The frog is an arrangement of rails placed 
at B where the gauge lines intersect by means of which the 
flanges of the wheels may cross either rail at that point. 

In Fig. 63 the gauge lines are shown; the line B P is 
drawn bisecting the frog angle M B N, and M N is 
drawn normal to B P, then from the triangle M B P, we 
have 

cot i F = ^, 

or, since from the definition of frog number, 

MN w' 
we have 

cot i F = 2 N (6). 

Substituting (6) in (5) we have 

1 = 2g N (7). 

107. The Radius in Terms of the Lead and Frog 
Nxmiber. — From the triangle A B, Fig. 62, we have 

OW — AO2 = AB2, or 

(r + ig? — (r — igy = P, or 2gr = P. 



Substituting (7) in the last expression, we have 

= 2g N2, 
1 N. (8) 



r = 2^ = 2g N2, or 



TURNOUTS. 97 

io8. Length of Switch Points. — The switch points 
A K and C G, Fig. 62, will not be equal in length if E G 
and H K are on the same radial line, nor will the throw 
E G and H K be equal, but in practice A K is made equal 
to C G, and E G to H K. If the length of the switch 
point is made equal to ^(A K + C G), and the throw to 
J(EG+HK), the variation from the theoretical dis- 
tances will not be appreciable. In practice the throw 
is governed by the weight of the rail which governs the 
width of the base of the rail, ^ 71, and the throw is made 
equal to the width of the base of the rail plus one-hah 
inch, to allow the ends of the rails to be spiked; some 
railroads specify a clear space of three inches between 
the gauge of the main rail and the outside of the head 
of the turnout rail, both rules being practically the same. 
In Fig. 62 _ _ 

^^ ~ 20G + EG ~ 2(r+ig) + EG' ^"""^ 
HK: ^' 



2(r — ig) + HK' 



neglecting E G and H K in the denominators as very 
small compared to 2r, making CE = CG = AII = AK 

= S, and taking the mean, 

^ EG + HK , / S2 S2 \ 4rS2 



^ V2(r + ig) ^ 2(r-ig); 



2(r + ig) ^ 2(r — ig)7 Sr^— 2g2' 

and neglecting 2g^ in the denominator as very small 
compared to 8r^, 

S = i/2rt = 2 N i/gt (9). 

log. Turnout Tables,— From the above formulas, 

7 



98 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



assuming the throw t to be 6f inches for 100 pound A. 
S. C. E. rails, and the gauge 4 feet 8^ inches, the following 
table has been computed for turnouts from a straight 
track. In the first seven columns theoretical values are 
given. The lengths of the switch rails in column eight 
are assumed, and the practical leads in the ninth column 
are the sums of the corresponding quantities in the 
seventh and eighth columns. 

TABLE XIV. 





Frog 
Angle. 


Turn- 
out 
Radius, 
Fbet. 


De- 
gree. 


Theoretical. 


Practical. 


Frog 

No. 


Lead, 
Feet. 


Switch 
Rail, 
Feet. 


Stub- 
lead, 
Feet. 


Switch 
Rail, 
Feet. 


Lead, 
Feet. 


4.. 


14° 15' 


150.7 


38° 02' 


37.67 


t = 6iin. 
12.53 


25.14 


10 


35.14 


5.. 


11° 25' 


235.4 


24° 21' 


47.08 


15.66 


31.42 


10 


41.42 


6.. 


9° 32' 


339.0 


16° 54' 


56.50 


18.79 


37.71 


10 


48.71 


7.. 


8° 10' 


461.4 


12° 26' 


65.92 


21.92 


44.00 


18 


62.00 


8.. 


7° 09' 


602.7 


9° 31' 


75.33 


25.05 


50.28 


18 


68.28 


9... 


6° 22' 


762.7 


7° 31' 


84.75 


28.19 


56.56 


18 


74.56 


10.. 


5° 44' 


941.7 


6° 05' 


94.17 


31.32 


62.85 


18 


80.85 


11.. 


5° 12' 


1139.4 


5° 02' 


103.58 


34.30 


69.28 


30 


99.28 


12.. 


4° 46' 


1356.0 


4° 14' 


113.00 


37.58 


75.42 


30 


105.42 


15.. 


3° 49' 


2118.7 


2° 42' 


141.25 


46.98 


94.27 


30 


124.27 


20.. 


2° 52' 


3766.6 


1°31' 


188.33 


62.64 


125.69 


30 


155.69 


24.. 


2° 23' 


5424.0 


1°03' 


226.00 


75.16 


150.84 


30 


180.84 



Railroads have at least four different frog numbers 
as standard; for example, No. 6 for crossovers in yards, 
No. 8 for crossovers on main track, No. 12 for a turnout 
to a ladder track, and No. 20 for a turnout to a third 
track, or some similar combination. This requires the 
storing of a number of each of these turnouts at each 
division headquarters, and it is seen that by using the 
practical lengths of switch points given in the eighth 



TURNOUTS. 99 

column of the above table, the problem of keeping a 
sufficient stock on hand is greatly simplified. 

The formulas used in computing the different parts 
of a turnout assume that the turnout between the point 
of switch and the frog is an arc of a circle. This is never 
the case, both on account of the short switch point rail, 
and both gauge lines of a frog being made straight, so 
that the only part of the turnout that is an arc of a 
circle is between the heel of the switch and the toe of the 
frog. 

no. Designing a Turnout. — ^In designing a turnout a 
frog is taken with a number corresponding to the radius of 
the curve required by the general conditions; where pos- 
sible, one of the standard frogs in stock is used. Having 
assumed the frog number, the lead may be computed by 
formula (7) or taken from the table, and, knowing the 
size of the rail and the throw, the other details may be 
computed by the formulas. As shown in Table XII, 
the principal variation from theoretical lengths is in 
the switch point. If the switch point were designed to 
give the exact theoretical lead, it would have a sharp 
thin point, which would be impracticable, consequently 
even when a standard length is not used, it is made 
enough shorter to give it the necessary thickness at the 
end to prevent from breaking off under ordinary wear, 
probably at least three inches shorter than the theoret- 
ical length. 

On main line turnouts the longer switch points are used 
so that the lead will be as near the theoretical lead as 
possible, but it is customary to use a short point on side 
tracks and in yards, thus giving what is called a short 



100 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

lead. For example, when an 18-foot point would be used 
on main line track with a No. 8 frog, a 10-foot point 
would be used with a No. 8 frog in yards, in which case 
the practical lead would be correspondingly less. 

A table similar to Table XII should be computed for 
each value of the throw that will be used, and the lengths 
of switch points should be made to correspond to the 
standards of the railroad in question. 



Article VIII. 
FROGS. 



III. Rigid or Stiff Frogs. — Frogs are of two general 
classes, viz., rigid frogs and spring frogs. Rigid frogs 
are so called in books and catalogs, but most trackmen 
call them stiff frogs. Stiff frogs are used in railroad 
crossings and turnouts where the tracks crossing each 
other are used equally, the speed usually being reduced 
at such points. There are a number of forms of stiff 
frogs, differing in the manner in which the various parts 
are fastened together, viz., riveted, bolted, and yoked or 
keyed. All frogs, w^hether stiff or spring, are made of 
the same weight rail as the balance of the track. In Fig. 
64 is shown a bolted frog. It is formed of pieces of rail 
cut and shaped to the proper form, held apart by rolled 
steel fillers, and firmly bolted together. The number of 
bolts depends upon the number of the frog and the gen- 
eral design, five to nine bolts 1 J or If inches in diameter 



TURNOUTS. 



101 



being used. One or more rivets are used in addition to 
the bolts, the rails M and N being riveted together, one 
rivet being sho\vn in Fig. 64, and two other rivets near 
the section C D not being shown. In Figs. 65 and 66 
are shown two sections of the frog, A B and C D respec- 
tively. Bolted frogs have the advantage that damaged 




parts may be replaced, but the parts of the frog are more 
liable to work loose than in other forms. 

Frogs are made and completed in the shop and 
are delivered ready to lay in the track; the trackmen 
then cut the track at the proper places and insert 
the frog. 

112. Yoked Frogs. — Yoked frogs are known by one 





of three names, viz., yoked, clamped, or keyed frogs. 
The yoked stiff frog is similar in general outline to the 
bolted frog in Fig. 64, but instead of bolts it is held to- 
gether by two or more yokes, or clamps. The yokes are 
made with a clear grip x. Fig. 67, depending upon the 
weight of the rail, the number of the frog, and their posi- 



102 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



tion in the frog. In the second sketch in Fig. 67 is 
shown the section, end-view, and dimensions of the clamp 
or yoke. The rails are placed in the yokes and fastened 
by means of steel wedges. In a frog with a large num- 
ber three yokes should be used, taking the place of the 
three sets of bolts in Fig. 64. The yokes are made of 
wrought-iron or mild steel. Injured parts of a yoked 
frog may be more readily replaced than in a bolted frog, 
but the parts are more liable to work loose. 

113. Riveted Frogs. — All frogs of the same number 
require the pieces of rail to have practically the same 
size and shape. Riyeted frogs for light rails and light 




SECTION A-B 



Fig. 67. 



traffic are formed by riveting the bases of the rails to a 
large plate which extends under the greater part of the 
frog. The plate is rectangular in shape and is as wide 
as the widest part of the frog. No frog is put together 
for heavy rails and traffic by rivets alone, but consists 
of a combination of the bolted frog and the riveted frog 
described above, and is made by riveting a bolted frog 
to a rectangular base plate, by means of rivets through 
the flanges of the rails. These are called bolted plate 
frogs and are used under very heavy traffic where the 
bolts alone would not be strong enough. Bolted plate 
frogs last much longer than the other forms under the 



TURNOUTS. 103 

same conditions, but must be sent to the shop to be 
repaired. 

114. Spring Frogs. — In stiff frogs there is a break 
in the continuity of both the main track and the turnout 
rails at the point of frog, there being a space over which 
the wheels must pass, the wheels being supported over 
this opening by a partial bearing on the wing rails of the 
frog, consequently a blow is struck by each wheel as it 
passes this point. These blows loosen and wear out the 
frog rapidly, besides necessitating a slow rate of speed. 
In the case of a turnout from the main track in which 
the main track is used considerably more than the turn- 
out, a spring frog is used, the spring frog giving prac- 
tically a continuous rail for the main track. 

In Fig. 68 is shown the arrangement of the rails in a 
spring frog. The spring in the case S holds the movable 
wing rail a b firmly against the adjoining part of the frog 
so that the main rail a c is practically unbroken. When 
a train is passing from the turnout to the main track, the 
wheel flanges enter the heel of the frog at b and force the 
wing rail over, the spring not being stiff enough to pre- 
vent this action, but being stiff enough to force the wing 
rail back after the flanges have passed. In the same 
manner the wing rail is forced over when a train enters 
the turnout from the main track, the guard rails which 
are always placed on both the turnout and main track 
opposite the frog assisting in this action. A spring frog 
is more complicated in design than a stiff frog, not only 
on account of the movable parts and the spring, but also 
on account of the special tie plates and braces necessary 
for the proper working of the frog. 



104 RAILROAD TRACK ANP CONSTRUCTION. 




TURNOUTS. 105 

The section through A B is shown in Fig. 69a. The 
fixed wing rail deis bolted to the frog point rails through 
rolled steel fillers shown in the figure. In Figs. 69a and 
696 is showTi the reinforcing bar which is riveted to the 
web of the movable wing rail a b. This bar is not sho^ni 
in Fig. 68, as the additional lines necessary to show it 
would add confusion to the figure. For the same reason 
the spikes, the bolts, and some of the rivets are not 
shown. 

The movable wing rail a b slides over the tie plates 
and is braced when pushed over by the flanges by 
the braces / / shown in Figs. 68 and 69c, the braces 
being riveted to the tie plate and shaped so that 
they fit snugly against the web of the rail or the re- 
inforcing bar. The wing rail is further controlled by 
the arm g which is riveted to the rail and moves 
through a socket riveted to the tie plate. In Fig. 69?> 
is shown a section through C D. 

115. Crossing Frogs. — Crossing frogs are necessary 
where two tracks cross each other at grade. The details 
of the design of crossing frogs depend upon the amount of 
traffic and the crossing angle. A sixty-degree crossing 
frog manufactured by the Ramapo Iron Works is shown 
in Fig. 70, the figure representing the intersection of two 
rails, four of these frogs being necessary for the inter- 
section of two single tracks. When the angle is greater 
than the angle of an ordinary turnout frog and the tracks 
are used equally, stiff frogs are used. Crossing frogs are 
subject to all the objections of an ordinary stiff frog, 
and the amount of pounding that they receive under 
heavy traffic makes them very difficult to maintain, and 



106 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



one year is a long life for them even when made of the 
best material and design. 

A grade track crossing is one of the weakest spots in a 
railroad on account — (1) of the interruption of traffic of 
both roads, (2) danger, and (3) difficulty of main- 
tenance. In many instances a railroad has gone to 
great expense and inconvenience to eliminate a grade- 
crossing, by substituting for it either an overhead or 




Fig. 70. 



undergrade crossing. In some cases a grade-crossing 
is absolutely necessary on accoimt ,of local conditions, 
topographical or otherwise. The older road never 
allows the newer road to cross its tracks at grade until 
all possible expedients, legal and otherwise, to prevent it, 
have been exhausted, sometimes to the extent that the 
authorities are called upon to compel the contending 
forces to keep the peace. 



TURNOUTS. 107 

ii6. Ordering Crossing Frogs. — Crossing frogs are 
ordered either from the shops of the railroad or from 
firms who make a specialty of manufacturing them, and 
the railroad must supply the following information: 
(1) gauge of track; (2) angle of crossing; (3) curvature, 
if any; (4) distance between centers of track, in case 
either road has more than one track; and also the 
following information for the drilling of splice-bars: 
(1) the distance from the end of rail to the center of 
first hole; (2) distance center to center of holes; base 
of rail to center of holes; and in addition to the above 
there must be sent a sample piece of the rail to be used. 




Fig. 71. 

a full-size drawing of the rail section, or the number of 
the rail section in the rail manufacturer's catalogue. 

In addition to the above, it is now becoming custom- 
ary for the railroad to specify that the steel in the rails 
used for the frogs shall have a certain composition of a 
higher grade than in the rails used on the balance of the 
track. 

117. Movable-point Frog. — Where the angle between 
the crossing tracks is small, or a slip switch is necessary, 
a movable-point frog is often used. In Fig. 71 is shown 
a double slip switch and crossing, the lines representing 
the gauge of the rails. The track A A crosses the track 
B B by means of the stiff frogs F and F and the movable- 



108 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

point frogs M and M'. The frog M consists of two 
switch points, a b and a c, which are controlled by sepa- 
rate levers attached to the companion points at M'. 
These points are shorter and stronger than the ordinary 
switch-point rails. In the figure the frogs are set for 
the track A- A. By the proper manipulation of the 
switch-point rails de, d' e', jg^ f g^ and the movable 
frogs trains may run from a track to either of the facing 
tracks. 

A movable-point frog may be used in an ordinary 
turnout. In the McPherson patented safety switch and 
frog neither of the rails of the main track is cut. Mov- 
able-point frogs require a tower with interlocking devices 
to insure their proper action. 



Article IX. 

CROSSOVERS. SWITCH ATTACHMENTS. 

ii8. Definition of Crossovers. — A crossover is an 
arrangement (Fig. 72) of two turnouts facing each other 
from adjacent tracks by means of which a train may pass 
from one track to a parallel track. They are necessary 
at block signals, so that a train may run over the left- 
hand track in case of obstructions on the other track, 
and also at stations and sidings and in yards for shifting 
purposes. It is usual to place crossovers along a 
railroad at intervals of not more than three miles, or at 
all points where orders from the train dispatcher at 



TURNOUTS. 



109 



headquarters can be delivered to the conductor of the 
train. In case of damage or obstruction to the track, a 
train may be run around the obstruction by using the 
reverse track between crossovers. This is done through 
the operators in the stations or towers along the line. 

119. Theory of Crossovers. — To illustrate the prin- 
ciple of crossovers the simplest case of a crossover be- 



( 


■ / 

/ 

. D / 


0' 




-■^^6 / 




A 


^^"^/\:>>^1^^ 


a' 




/h g'-^^^' 






/ 

/ 


5/ 



Fig. 12. 



tween parallel tracks when the frog numbers, the dis- 
tance between the centers of the tracks, and the gauge 
are given. 

In Fig. 72 let p be the distance between the centers of 
track, the frog angles F be equal, g the gauge, and k the 
distance between the points of frog measured along the 
center line of the crossover. Produce the line B E' to 
D', and draw B H normal to the tracks; then in the 
triangle B H D', B E' == B D' — E' D', or 

k = (p-g) cosec F — g cot F (10) 



110 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

and H B' = H D' — B' D', or 

H B' = (p-g) cot F — g cosec F (11) 

In the triangle B A, cos A E = k/0 B, or 

cos t = ; — 7- = t; ; (IZ) 

r + ig 2r + g 

Substituting r = 2g N'' (If 107) in (12), we have 

co.F-^gN^-g- ^N'-l , . 
"""^ ^ - 4gN^ + g - 4N2 + 1 ^^^'> 

From the triangle B A, sin A E = A Bi/0 B, and 
substituting 1 =2g N and r = 2g N^, we have 

cosec F = N + jT?- (15), and 
cot F = N-jJ^ (16). 

Now substituting (15) and (16) in (10) and (11), we have 
k = (p-2g)N + ^ (17), and 
, HB'= (p-~2g)N — ^ (18). 

Since A B = A' B' = 1 = 2gN (If 106), K A' = 2 1 + 
HB', or 

KA' = (p+2g)N-^ = l + p(N-j^) (19). 

120. Table and Example. — Suppose it is required to 
lay a crossover with No. 8 frogs between parallel tracks 
13 feet between centers: Then N = 8, 1 == 75.3 and 
p = 13.00 feet, substituting in (19) 

K A' = 75.3 + 13(8 — ^) = 178.92 feet, 

and from (18) 

H B' = (13 — 9.4166) 8 — ^l = 28.3 feet. 



TURNOUTS. 



Ill 



The frog distance H B' must always be the theoretical 
distance computed from (18), but the total length of the 
crossover, K A', will depend upon the lead, or the length 
of switch-point rails used. In table XV are given the 
values of the frog distance for frogs of different numbers. 

TABLE XV. 
Crossover Frog Distances. 



Frog No. 


Center to Center of Tracks. 


12' 0" 


12' 2'' 


13' 0'' ' 


5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

15 

20 

24 


12.3 
15.0 
17.7 
20.3 
22.9 
25.5 
28.1 
30.8 
38.6 
51.5 
61.9 


13.1 
16.0 
18.8 
21.6 
24.4 
27.2 
30.0 
32.8 
41.1 
54.8 
65.9 


17.3 
21.0 
24.6 
28.3 
31.9 
35.5 
39.1 
42.7 
53.5 
71.5 
85.9 



121. Reinforced Switch-point Rails. — Switch-point 
rails are made plain or reinforced. The plain switch- 
point rails are formed by planing both sides of the head 





Fig. 73. 



Fig. 74. 



and one side of the flange of the rail so that the face of 
the rail that forms the gauge of the turnout will be in 
proper position when the switch rail is held against the 
main rail by the switch rods. In Figs. 73 and 74 are 



112 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

shown sections through the main and switch-point rails 
near the point of switch, Fig. 73 showing a plain point, 
and Fig. 74 a reinforced point. The switch points are 
reinforced by riveting a bar of steel to each side of the 
rail, as shown in the figure. Short switch-point rails are 
not usually reinforced, but long points are always re- 
inforced. 

122. Switch Rods. — Switch-point rails are connected 




Fig. 75. 



and held in position by one or more rods shown in Fig. 
75, the end rod being connected to the lever or device by 
which the switch is thrown. Switch rods are of two 
general types, viz., plain and adjustable, but there are 
many forms of each. Plain switch rods are most gener- 
ally used and must be made to suit the design of the 
switch; the dimensions of switch rods depend upon the 

gauge, the weigh of rail, the 
lead, and the distance from 
<: the point of switch at which 
Fig. 76. they are placed. 

One of the simplest forms 
of plain switch rods is shown in Fig. 76. It consists of a 
rectangular steel bar to which are bolted clips by means 
of which the bar is fastened to the rail. The clips are 
shaped so that they fit neatly to the flange of the rail 
or to the reinforcing bar and are fastened to the rail by 
bolts. 
Adjustable rods are made in two pieces which screw 



h^ 



TURNOUTS. 113 

into a socket or joint at the center of the rod, by means of 
which shght variations in the length of the rod may be 
made. If switch rods are properly designed, there is no 
necessity for adjustment. Switch rods on account of 
their exposed position are very liable to become bent, 
thus shortening the distance between the switch rails, 
but it will be easier to take out the plain bar, straighten 
it, and put it back, than it will to attempt to adjust the 
difference due to the bending by means of a screw ar- 
rangement that has probably become badly rusted. 

The end switch rod passes under the rails and is at- 
tached to the switch stand, and must have a spring ar- 
rangement that will allow the wheel flanges to force their 
way through the heel of the switch, w^hen the point switch 
is set the wrong w;ay. These springs are usually at- 
tached to the part of the rod that is between the rails, 
although there are some switch stand devices that have 
the spring in the stand. 

123. Switch Stands. — A switch stand should have 
the following three essential points for satisfactory opera- 
tion: First, a true throw with as little lost motion as 
possible; second, a safe locking device so that it cannot 
be misplaced through carelessness; and, third, a sure in- 
dication of its position, by target in daytime and lamp 
at night. A true throw is especially important for a 
stub switch, since the stub switch, having no spring, de- 
pends entirely upon the position of the lever, while in a 
point switch the spring will take up a small amount of 
lost motion. 

In the early days of railroading, when the stub switch 
was in universal use, the most common form of upright 
8 



114 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

switch stand was called the ^^harp'' pattern. It con- 
sisted of a straight lever held upright in a harp-shaped 
frame, the target being attached to the upper end and the 
connecting rod to the lower end of the lever. The prin- 
ciple of the device was very simple, and furnished a cheap 
and reliable means for throwing and holding the switch 
rails. During the daytime it showed plainly the posi- 
tion of the switch; when the lever stood in a vertical 
position it indicated main line, and a side, or slanting, 
position indicated that it was set for the turnout. A 
switch light could not be readily attached, consequently 
the harp switch stand went almost entirely out of use 
when night signals became necessary. A few of these 
stands with a lamp attachment may still be found. 

124. Low Switch Stands. — There are a great many 
varieties and patterns of switch stands. In Fig. 77 are 
shown three varieties of the Ramapo patent safety switch 
stands. The target is shaped and painted so that it 
shows clearly whether or not the switch is open, and this 
is also indicated by the lamp that is placed on the top of 
the stand by means of the attachment shown at the top 
of the vertical bar. The switch can also be locked in the 
position desired. Switch stands are used in yards and 
in connection with side tracks that are not much used. 
In case of an important switch or turnout from the main 
track a semaphore or banjo signal is used. 

In the Ramapo switch stands, Fig. 77, the signal and 
switch rails are attached to the same switch rod. It is 
imperative that the signal and switch work in unison, 
as the engineman is guided solely by the target or signal, 
as it would be impossible to distinguish the position of 



TURNOUTS. 



115 



the switch rails even when running within the speed 
Hmits allowed in yards. 

125. Guard Rails. — Guard rails are always placed 
opposite a frog, as shown in Fig. 59, on both the turnout 
and main rails. They are usually from twelve to fifteen 
feet in length and are shaped in different ways. In 
one extreme they are curved throughout their entire 




Fig. 77. 



length and are so placed that the center of the arc is* 
directly opposite the point of frog; and in the other ex- 
treme, six or eight feet of the center of the guard rail 
is straight, and the ends are gently curved so that the 
wheel flanges are gradually crowded toward the main 
rail and allow a minimum amount of side motion for a 
distance equal to the straight part of the guard rail. 



116 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



Arguments are advanced in favor of both extremes, but 
the general usage is between the two. In the guard 
rail shown in Fig. 78 the straight part is three feet long, 
and the guard rail is so placed that two feet of the straight 
part is ahead of the point directly opposite the point of 
frog and one foot of the straight part is behind it, thus 
making eight feet of guard rail ahead and seven feet be- 
hind the point of frog, the total length of the guard rail 
being fifteen feet. There is a clear flange-way, or dis- 
tance between gauge of main rail and outside of head of 




Fig. 78. 



guard rail, of If inches along the straight part of the 
guard rail, and four inches at the ends. The inner 
flange of the guard rail is planed off so that the proper 
flange-way can be obtained without interfering with the 
spiking of the main rail. The guard rail is held in place 
by tie plates, rail braces, and spikes not shown in the 
figure. Only the heads of the rails in the frog are in- 
dicated in Fig. 78. 

126. Foot-guards.— Foot-guards are devices placed 
between all rails which come so close together that a 
trackman may get his foot caught between them, such 



TURNOUTS. 117 

as between guard rails and the main rail, switch-point 
rails and the main rail, and other parts of the fr6g or 
switch with similar spaces. A large number of railroad 
employees are injured in this way every year, particular^ 
in yards. In cutting, drilling, and making up a train 
very quick work must be done, the men jumping from 
moving cars without much time to look out for proper 
footing. If a man gets his foot caught in one of these 
traps under these circumstances, he is very liable to have 
a foot cut off or be killed before the car or train can be 
stopped. In some States legislation has been passed 
requiring proper safeguards to be used, and in all 
cases railroad officials should see that they are used. 
Wooden blocks, metal guards, 
and gravel or cinder- filling are 
employed. Frogs frequently FigTto. 

have cast-iron fillers bolted in 

during manufacture. The most difficult part to safe- 
guard is the switch-point rail. A piece of iron or steel 
bar IJ inches wide and j inch thick, bent as shown in 
Fig. 79, and bolted to the webs of the rails, makes a light 
and efficient foot guard. 

127. Headblocks. — At the point of each switch are 
placed two pieces of timber called headblocks, as shown 
in Fig. 80. The headblocks should be the same thickness 
as the ties, seven inches, or at most not more than one 
inch thicker, eight to ten inches wide, and twelve to 
fifteen feet long. The point of switch comes directly 
over the first block, and the switch stand, or whatever 
device there may be for throwing the switch and the 
signal, is fastened to the outer ends of the headblocks. 



118 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

Headblocks are necessary to insure that the rods and 
attachments that connect the switch rails to the switch 
stand cannot become deranged through the shifting of 
the track. In some cases, such as where a simple ground 
lever is used for throwing the switch, only one block is 
used. It is better that headblocks be sawed, but they 
may be hewed if they give a true surface. In case of 
only one block being used, it is sometimes specified that 
it shall be seven inches thick, fourteen to sixteen inches 
wide, and twelve to fifteen feet long, depending upon the 
standards of the particular railroad. 

128. Switch Timbers. — In order that the ties may 
extend the same distance outside the rails, it is necessary 
that the ties for a switch be made longer than the regu- 
lation tie. These ties of special length are called switch 
timbers. When the regular ties are 8| feet long and the 
gauge is 4 feet SJ inches, the end of the tie is 20f inches 
from the gauge line. A switch may be laid roughly with 
ordinary ties by placing a tie under the main track and 
the next tie under the turnout track, alternately. This 
gives an unequal bearing for the different rails, necessi- 
tates an excessive amount of timber, and is used only 
when proper switch timbers can not be obtained. 

A set of switch timbers for a No. 6 turnout is shown in 
Fig. 80. The lower ends of the timbers follow a curve 
parallel to the curve of the turnout and 20f inches from 
the gauge of the outer rail, the timbers being cut to the 
nearest inch in length. Switch timbers are placed under 
the turnout up to the point where the tracks are far 
enough apart to allow regular ties to be used, as shown 
to the right of Fig. 80. As soon as this point is reached 






n n n n nlr^ n rh ^^ ^ n ^ 




fi 



NOV 27 laOu 



TURNOUTS. 



119 



the outer ends of the ties under the turnout are grad- 
ually placed closer together until the ties are normal, or 
radial, to the track. 

On some railroads, instead of having each switch 
timber of different length with the center of their ends 
following the parallel, or concentric curve, two or more 
adjacent timbers are made the same length, provided 
the variation from the theoretic length is not too great. 
This method is indicated by the broken lines at the lower 
part of Fig. 80, three timbers being taken of equal length, 
the middle timber being the true 
length, and the ends of the timbers 
looking like a series of steps. 

129. Length of Switch Tim- 
bers. — Switch timbers are placed 
at distances apart governed by the 
standard of the railroad. In Fig. 
80 is shown the standard spacing 
of switch timbers for a No. 6 turn- 
out on the Pennsylvania R. R., the 
timbers being placed closer together 
under the switch rails and frog. The length of switch 
timbers may be determined by plotting the details of 
the turnout to a large scale, or by computing the length 
when the distance from the point of switch is known. 

In Fig. 81, let be the center of the turnout curve, 
draw I m and d n parallel to the main track and 8 J feet 
apart representing the ends of regular ties, and the curve 
rf 6 A; at the corresponding distance from the turnout 
track. Then to determine the length of the switch 
timber a fe, draw fe c = x parallel to the mam track, and 




Fig. 81. 



120 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



the line o b, and let the radius o d == r^, and r be the 

radius of the turnout. In the triangle c o 6, sin cob = 

-, and in the triangle dob, c d =- t^ vers cob, then 

a b == 8i + c d (20). 

In the above formula all the distances are in feet. The 
lengths of all the switch timbers being determined, they 
are compiled into a table called the bill of timber, there 
being a bill of timber for each style of turnout. In 
table XVI is given the Pennsylvania R. R. bill of timber 
for a No. 6 turnout in which the turnout track is tangent 
from the heel of the frog, which requires more of the long 
timbers than where the turnout is curved beyond the heel 
of the frogs, as in Fig. 80, the first two pieces being the 
headblocks. 

TABLE XVI. 
Bill of Timber. 





No. 


6 Turnout 


Ties 7" X 


10". 




No. of 
Pieces. 


Length. 


No. of 
Pieces. 


Length. 


No. of 
Pieces. 


Length. 


2 


12' 6" 




10' 1" 




13' 8" 




8' 7" 




10' 4" 




14' 0" 




8' 8" 




10' 7" 




14' 4" 




8' 9" 




10' 10" 




14' 7" 




8' 10" 




11' 1" 




14' 11" 




8' 11" 




11' 5" 




15' 3" 




9' 0" 




11' 9" 




15' 7" 




9' 2" 




12' 1" 




15^ 11" 




9' 4" 




12' 4" 




16' 4" 




9' 6" 




12' 8" 




16' 8" 




9' 8" 




13' 0" 




17' 0" 




9' 10" 




13' 4" 







Total, 36 Pieces. 



433' 0" lineaL 



2526 feet B. M. 



TURNOUTS. 121 

130. Derailing Switch. — A derailing switch is a 
device by which a train or car can be derailed when ab- 
solutely necessary. They are placed on sidings^ as at 
a bj Fig. 82, to prevent a car from running on the mam 
track from the siding, and the switch placed far enough 
back of the frog to prevent the train or car when ditched 
from interfering with the main line track. Derailing 
switches are also placed at the entrance to single-track 
railroad bridges, particularly drawbridges, and also at 
grade railroad crossings. In a grade railroad crossing, 
in most cases, when the tracks and signals are set for one 
railroad, the derailing switches on the other railroad are 




Fig. 82. 

set so that a train can not run into the train having the 
right of way, it being invariably less dangerous to ditch 
one train than to run the two trains together. In Fig. 82, 
a 6 is a switch point controlled by a lever. 

131. Interlocking Switches. — Interlocking devices 
are too many and complicated to give anything like a 
full discussion, therefore only a brief description of the 
manner of working an interlocked switch will be given 
here. When a train is to be run from the main line to a 
turnout, or \dce versa, the tracks being clear, the tower 
operator throws a lever which opens the switch and sets 
all necessary signals; by means of an interlocking device, 



122 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION 

this lever is prevented from being thrown back in its 
first position until the entire train has passed through the 
switch. The signals in the mean time are set so that 
another train can not run into the first train without 
disregarding the signals. The device that prevents the 
lever from being thrown back too soon usually consists 
of a long flat bar of iron which lies close to the outer face 
of the head of the rail, with its top flush with the head of 
the rail. This bar works on the pivot principle by means 
of small angle levers, and in passing from the position in 
which it lies when the switch is closed to its position 
when the switch is open, or vice versa, it rises above the 
head of the rail and falls to a position level with the top 
of the rail. This bar, called a detector bar, is attached 
to the switch device in such a manner that it works auto- 
matically, and is of such length that there is always at 
least one wheel on it when a train is passing ; the wheels 
hold it down, thus preventing the lever in the tower or 
any of the signals being changed until the entire train has 
passed. 



CHAPTER IV. 

SIDETRACKS, YARDS, TERMINALS, 
SIGNALS. 



Article X. 

SIDETRACKS AND YARDS. 

132. Passing Sidings. — Sidetracks may be divided 
into two general classes, viz., passing sidings and freight 
sidings. Passing sidings are tracks that are used to 
facilitate the running of trains. On a single-track rail- 
road passing sidings are needed at more or less regular 
distances apart, so that trains may pass each other; the 
less the traffic, the farther apart the passing sidings. 
Originally these sidings were only long enough to allow 
the longest freight train to stand on them; as traffic in- 
creased these sidings were made long enough to hold two 
or more trains. Heavy traffic on single-track roads is 
frequently subjected to considerable delay. An in- 
stance of this was seen on a southern railroad only a few 
years ago, when two south -bound trains met three north- 
bound trains at a passing siding that would hold only 
one train. It took several hours to straighten them 
out, part of the delay being due to a very dark night. 

123 



124 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

133. Second and Third Tracks. — When traffic in- 
creases to such an extent that single-track and passing 
sidings are inadequate, the siding is extended until it is 
practically a double-track road in long stretches. In 
the same manner when it becomes necessary on double- 
track roads to have sidings in order to allow passenger 
trains to pass the slower freight trains going in the same 
direction, a third track is laid in such manner that the 
middle track is 'the siding. It is at the turnout at the 
ends of such tracks that the large numbered frogs 
(No. 15 to 20) are used, these frogs having such a 
small angle and the lead being so great that the siding can 
be entered at a speed of 30 miles per hour, which would 
be impossible without great danger of derailment over a 
frog with a small number. 

On double-track railroads with heavy traffic there is 
usually a side track at each signal block, so that freight 
trains can be signaled and run out of the way of passenger 
trains. If there is no crossover within two or three 
miles of the block tower, one is usually laid at the tower. 
This enables trains to get from either track to the siding, 
and also to cross over and run the reverse track in case of 
one of the tracks being blocked by an accident. 

Some railroads have such heavy passenger traffic that 
practically all freight trains, except way freights, are run 
as special trains at such times as will not interfere with 
the passenger trains. In cases of unusual passenger 
traffic, such as comes on roads centering in Washington, 
D. C, at the Presidents' inauguration, it is nothing un- 
usual to have a freight take two or three days to run 100 
miles.. The train will be started from one end of the 



SIDETRACKS, YARDS, TERMINALS, SIGNALS. 125 

division and will run until flagged and sidetracked; as 
soon as there is a chance it will reach another block, and 
so on. As soon as the traffic warrants, these roads are 
changed to three- and four-track roads. This develop- 
ment is going on all over the United States at a greater 
rate than ever before, considering intervals of several 
years each. 

134. Freight Sidings. — When the freight handled at 
any station is more than can be loaded and unloaded 
from and to the platform, at least one siding is necessary. 
The simplest siding used for this purpose consists of a 
turnout and a track parallel to the main track, and long 
enough to hold one or more cars; this track may either 
turn back into the main track or have a bumper at the 
lower end. If, as is sometimes the case, a siding is built 
for the convenience of people at some distance from a 
regular siding, in this case there is very often no freight 
house, there being simply an uncovered platform, and in 
some cases there is no platform at all, teams driving close 
to the car to load and unload. When the railroad 
passes through a village or to^vn, there is always a freight 
house w^ith a siding long enough to accommodate the 
traffic, and probably sidings to coal dumps in addition. 

135. Yards. — In towns and cities large enough to 
warrant several side tracks, these tracks are usually 
arranged in a system of tracks called a yard. Each 
manufacturing plant will have its individual sidings for 
handling freight in car-load lots, the general freight traffic 
being handled at the freight station of the railroad. An 
engine or engines must be provided to place the cars at 
the proper points for loading and unloading, to place the 



126 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

cars in the yard for shipment, and then to arrange them 
in trains to be forwarded in the proper direction. 

A small yard is laid out along the general lines shown 
in Fig. 83. This sketch represents a yard alongside of the 
two main running tracks. D C is a crossover by which 
east-bound trains may pass over to the west-bound 
track and then to the drilling track A B, from which they 
can enter the ladder track B E. If the ends of the yards 
are symmetrical, a west-bound train will enter the yard 
at the east end; otherwise it will back in at A. A yard 
must be designed to suit the work required by the traffic, 
and only a few general points can be stated as common to 



CA^ 



Fig. 83. 

all conditions. In many yards the ladder track leaves 
the main track near the point B, and does not have 
the drilling track A B. One of the first principles in 
switching is to keep the main track as free as possible; 
if the track A B is not long enough to hold the longest 
train, it will be practically impossible to cut and drill the 
trains in the yard without backing on the main track. 
It is usually necessary to have a series of crossovers be- 
tween the yard tracks. 

136. Gravity Yards. — Cars are made up into trains 
by one of two general methods, viz., by being pushed, 
or kicked, into place, and by the aid of gravity. The 
first method must be used where the yard is level. The 



SIDETRACKS, YARDS, TERMINALS, SIGNALS. 127 

train is cut so that the desired car is on the end of the 
string, the engine pulls the cars out on the drilling track, 
and then pushes them rapidly on the track where the 
train is to be made up, the car is uncoupled, the engine 
stops, and the car is carried by its momentum to the 
desired spot, usually being controlled by a brakeman us- 
ing the hand-brakes. This is repeated until all the cars 
are coupled into a train, and then the train is ready to be 
dispatched. The opposite is done with an incoming 
train with local freight ; each car is drilled out and taken 
to the siding where it is to be unloaded. 

Where the topography is such that the desired grade 
can be obtained, gravity yards may be constructed, the 
gradient sloping downward from the entering ladder 
track, there being a system of crossovers by which the 
cars may be run on to one track. In order that a car 
will start upon loosening the brakes a gradient of 0.8 to 
1.0 per cent, is required; the rate of gradient required 
depends upon the temperature of the journals of the cars, 
the heavier gradient being required for the colder weather. 
In a strictly gravity yard, the work is done entirely by 
gravity, and consists in loosening the brakes and allow- 
ing the car to run to the desired point. There are no 
yards dependent entirely upon gravity, in the United 
States. The principal objection to gravity yards is the 
uncertainty of the action of the car at different temper- 
atures; if the gradient is made steep enough to insure 
the car starting in the coldest weather, there is danger of 
the car getting beyond control in milder weather, neces- 
sitating special devices to prevent the car from running 
away, or rather for stopping it while running away. 



128 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

137. Partial Gravity Yards. — Under normal con- 
ditions a gradient of 0.4 per cent, is sufficient to just 
keep the car moving after it has been started. Some 
yards are built with a gradient of about — 0.5 per cent, on 
the drilling track, and — 0.25 to — 0.4 on the standing 
tracks. By this method the engine pulls the car out on 
the drilling track and just starts it, the grade carrying it 
to the point desired. This method is far preferable to the 
level yard, and probably also to the strictly gravity 
yard, as there is practically no danger of a runaway. 
In shunting J kicking, or making a flying switch^ it is very 
difficult to give the car just the right start, and the whole 
operation is much more dangerous for the train crew. 

There are other methods of classifying a train, and also 
many ways of arranging a yard, which can not be shown 
here. The only way to get an adequate idea of the 
manner of arranging yards and terminals is to read the 
descriptions given in the engineering periodicals and 
study the accompanying conditions. 

138. Terminals. — A terminal yard is placed at the 
end of each division of a railroad, and their proper design 
is a still broader question than that of a yard at an inter- 
mediate piont. It is essential that both passenger and 
freight stations be placed as near the center of a city as 
possible, particularly where there are competing roads. 
Most yards and terminal yards were started years ago, 
when the road had far less traffic, and there was in some 
cases too little attention paid to future needs. Tracks 
have been added from time to time, until finally there is 
not only no way of increasing the size of the yards with- 
out enormous expense for real estate, but the general 



SIDETRACKS, YARDS, TERMINALS, SIGNALS. 129 

design is not economical. An instance of what rail- 
roads are compelled to do in order to improve their 
facilities is shown in the work now in course of construc- 
tion in and around New York city. It would not have 
paid to Jiave attempted to anticipate all of this improve- 
ment twenty-five years ago, as the^ at that time, useless 
expenditure would have put an unsupportable burden 
upon the various railroads, and the excess sum then ex- 
pended would now, at compound interest, have amounted 
to an enormous sum of money. 

The design of a terminal yard depends entirely upon 
the local conditions. In some terminals freight is mostly 
for local use or shipment, while in others the greater 
proportions must be forw^arded to other points, the yard 
being used principally to classify through freight. 

One of the principal features in which a terminal yard 
differs from an intermediate yard is that the engines 
must be housed, and fuel stored for them, and in some 
cases repairs are made to all the rolling stock. This 
requires many additional tracks that must be kept 
separate from the yard tracks, as well as proper build- 
ings and fixtures for the purpose. In all yards there are 
facilities for at least as much repairing of cars as will 
allow the car to proceed, but at terminals there must 
be a fully equipped rolling stock ^^ hospital." 

139. Roundhouses. — Roundhouses are necessary for 
the proper care of locomotive engines at all points where 
it is necessary to have extra engines. An engine cannot 
be run continuously, it being laid off at certain inter- 
vals between runs, a continuous run being the length 
of the division of the railroad. Consequently there is 
9 



130 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



always a roundhouse at each terminal yard, and also 
probably at large intermediate yards. When not in 
use, the fires are thoroughly cleaned and banked and the 
engine is run into the roundhouse, where it is thoroughly 
examined, wiped, and any small repairs and adjustments 
made. The general plan of a roundhouse and turntable 
is shown in Fig. 84. A track long enough to hold the 
largest locomotive and tender is arranged so that it can 
be turned on a pivot, and stopped and fastened by a 
clutch opposite any of the tracks radiating from it. A 

turntable is necessary in 
connection with a round- 
house, and also at the end 
of spur lines, in order to 
turn the engine for the 
return trip. The engines 
come from the yard on the 
track A B, and are run on 
to the turntable ; the turn- 
table is then turned until 
it is opposite the desired 
track, and the engine is run into the roundhouse. 

All the roundhouse tracks radiate from the center 
of the turntable and turntable pit. The distance C D is 
sometimes made great enough to allow the engines to stand 
with the greater part of the engine outside of the round- 
house, and still have proper clearance at the turntable end 
of the tracks. In any case the distance C D must be great 
enough to allow proper clearance at the posts a a from 
which the doors are swung. If the distance C D is great 
enough, the ends of the adjacent rails of adjoining tracks 




Fig. 84. 



SIDETRACKS, YARDS, TERMINALS, SIGNALS. 131 

may be placed at a distance apart equal to the width 
of the base of the rail plus f inch (same as the throw) and 
ordinary rails are used. This is shown on the right side 
of Fig. 84. If the distance C D is too short for the above 
arrangement, frogs must be used, as shown on the left 
side of the figure. 

140. Ash-pits and Coal-bins. — Ash-pits are neces- 
sary for the cleaning or dumping of the engine grates. 
They are usually placed on the track A B near the round- 
house. Ash-pits are also built in the roundhouse under 
each track. The proper arrangement of the ash-pit is one 
of the principal items in connection with the care of en- 
gines, the fires being cleaned after each trip in order to 
remove the clinkers. The clinkers and ashes are cooled 
with water and then loaded on cars for removal. The 
method of removing the material from the pits ranges 
all the way from shoveling into wheelbarrows to fairly 
elaborate mechanical devices. The greater proportion 
of the material from the ash-pits consists of clinker, and 
it is from this source that cinder ballast is. obtained. 

It is quite a problem to handle coal for locomotives 
economically. The simplest arrangement consists in 
hauling the coal on a high trestle and dumping it into 
bins; a low track is run alongside the bins, and the coal 
run into the tenders. In some cases the coal is put 
in the tender by means of cables and buckets, the cables 
being stretched across the track and at right angles to it. 



132 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

Article XL 
WATER-SUPPLY FOR LOCOMOTIVES. 

141. Water for Locomotive Boilers. — There is no 
question that is of more importance to the item of engine 
repairs and operation than that of an ample supply of 
soft water. Water for this purpose should be free from all 
impurities that will affect the efficiency of the boiler tubes 
and the boiler in general. Hard water, containing a 
large percentage of lime, has in some cases decreased 
the life of locomotive boilers to one-half the time they 
would have lasted with soft water. In order to get an 
adequate supply of good water some railroads have 
bought up entire watersheds, built their own reservoirs, 
and, where nebessary, installed pumping machinery. 
A large amount of water must be necessary in order to 
warrant the installation of a separate plant, and in ordi- 
nary cases it is more economical to buy water from a 
local plant, even if the water must be treated by a soft- 
ening process before using. 

Water is supplied to the locomotive tender in three 
principal ways: (1) from water-tanks; (2) from mains; 
and (3) from track troughs, or tanks. 

142. Water-tanks. — It should be possible for an 
engine to take water at short intervals along the line, 
particularly at all regular stops. In country where the 
regular stopping-places are long distances apart, inter- 
mediate water-tanks must be maintained, and whenever 
possible the tanks should be placed just over a summit, 



SIDETRA.CKS, YARDS, TERMINALS, SIGNALS. 133 

SO that gravity will assist the engine in starting the train. 
One of the most common methods is to pump the water 
from a well or stream to a tank. An iron pipe with the 
outer end curved downward at an angle of 90 degrees 
is attached to the lower part of the tank in such manner 
that it may be swung over the center of the track when 
filling the tender and swung parallel to the track and well 
out of the way when not in use. A piece of canvas or 
rubber hose is attached to the outer end of the pipe so 
that it can be run into the opening of the tender and 
prevent waste. The pipe is opened and closed by means 
of a valve, which is usually controlled by a wheel attach- 
ment. 

The tanks are usually made of wood or steel. Wooden 
•tanks are circular and made of staves held together 
by iron bands or hoops, and are supported by timber 
trestling or a masonry foundation. Steel tanks are 
circular in shape and made of boiler plates riveted to- 
gether in the usual way. They are supported on steel 
towers or masonry foundations. The size of the tank 
will depend upon the amount of water required and the 
nature of the supply. If the rate of pumping is slow and 
a large amount of water is required in a short time, a 
larger tank will be required than when the rate of pump- 
ing can be varied and the demand is more uniformly 
distributed throughout the day. The capacity of tanks 
varies from 20,000 to 50,000 gallons. 

143. Standpipes. — Stand pipes are used when the 
water is furnished through a main, the standpipe being 
of sufficient height and having an arm, as described above, 
which is swung over the center of the track, the standpipe, 



134 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

or columif, being simply a device to hold and control 
the arm at the proper elevation. The water is obtained 
from the town or city supply, the railroad company pay- 
ing an annual rental for each column for all the water 
that maybe used, or a water-meter may be attached. 
On roads having two or more tracks a stand pipe is placed 
on the opposite side of the tracks from the company 
tank, and is connected with the tank by means of a pipe 
passing under the tracks. 

Tanks and standpipes located at stations are placed 
as near as possible to where the engine stands while mak- 
ing a regular stop, in order that the engine may take 

water while the baggage is 
^ ^-2og-y ^ being shifted and passengers 

' ' 1 getting off and on the train,- 

^ ^ .,,. ^^_ thus saving unnecessary de- 

U^ LJ " g'-'-'D^ lay. 

Fig. 85. 144. Track Tanks. — On 

tracks over which a great 
many through trains are run, arrangements are made 
by means of which the tank in the locomotive tender 
may be filled while the train is in motion. This is ac- 
complished by means of a track tank or trough placed 
between the rails and kept filled with water, the general 
arrangement being shown in Fig. 85. The trough is 
about 7 inches deep and 20 inches wide in the clear, and 
is countersunk about 2 inches into the tie, which makes 
its top about the same elevation as the top of the rails. 
It is made of steel plates and braces, all the rivet heads 
on the inside of the trough being coimtersunk to present 
a smooth surface to the scoop. The ends of the trough 



SIDETRACKS, YARDS, TERMINALS, SIGNALS. 135 

are shaped as shown, the bottom being gradually in- 
clined to the surface, and the ends being inclined in the 
same way, to insure against trouble in case the scoop is 
dropped too soon or not pulled up in time. The speed 
of the train forces the water up the scoop, which is 
lowered from the tender until its mouth is immersed in 
the water. In order to prevent the water from entering 
the tender with a velocity so great that it would injure 
the tender, the speed of the train is reduced a little and 
the scoop increases in size from the mouth toward the 
upper end, the velocity being decreased in proportion. 
The water is usually supplied from a tank, the supply 
being controlled by valves. 



Article XII. 
SIGNALS. 



145. Development of Signals. — Signals are devices 
by the aid of which the engineman and train crew may 
know whether or not they have a clear track. In the 
early days of single track and few trains this was accom- 
plished entirely by flags, and before the invention of the 
telegraph the train was entirely in the hands of the train 
crew between stations. As traffic increased and the 
telegraph came into use it was possible for the chief 
operator to control all trains from one central point. 
By telegraphing ahead and setting a signal the train 



136 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

could be stopped for further orders. These signaUng 
points were far apart. As the number of trains per day 
increased it was necessary to control them at shorter 
intervals, and this has increased until now on many 
railroads signals are placed a distance of one mile or 
less apart. There are several methods of signaling, 
the principal distinct types of which are the manual 
and the automatic. 

146. Manual Signaling. — One of the earliest forms 
of the complete control of trains by signals was the 
^' block tower ^' system. This system is still in use, but 
the details of operating the signals have been greatly 
improved. The early forms of the method consisted 
of towers spaced three or more miles apart. Each tower 
had two telegraph operators, a day- and a night-operator, 
and had one signal attached which could be placed in 
two positions, viz., at danger or at clear. When a train 
passed a block, the operator threw his signal to danger 
and kept it there until the operator at the next block 
ahead telegraphed that the train had passed his block, 
then the first operator threw his signal to clear. This 
was purely a manual system, the operator being able at 
any time to throw his signal to either position, depend- 
ing entirely upon his information by telegraph. This 
method works all right as long as the operator does not 
become confused. Many accidents occurred from the 
carelessness or wrong interpretation of orders by the 
operator, in many cases the fault lying with the railroad 
officials, because through false economy or unusual cir- 
cumstances the operator was held at his post for so long 
a time that he was temporarily mentally and physically 



SIDETRACKS, YARDS, TERMINALS, SIGNALS. 137 

incompetent. This led to the use of methods partly 
manual and partly automatic. 

147. Manual-automatic Signaling. — ^In this method, 
after the operator has thrown his signal to danger, a 
mechanical contrivance acts in such a way that it is 
impossible for him to throw his signal to clear until the 
operator in the next tower has thrown his lever to danger. 
When the second operator throws his signal to danger, 
he automatically, by means of an electrical device, makes 
it possible for the first operator to work his lever so that 
he can throw his signal to clear. This method still 
leaves a possibility of danger, but it is far less than when 
no interlocking device is used. It is necessary to have 
towers and signals partly under manual control at all 
points where important switches must be thrown or at 
grade railroad crossings. The lever that operates the 
switch must be thrown by a man, but there are various 
automatic devices that guarantee the safety of the train 
while using the switch, ^ 131. 

148. Automatic Signaling. — In this system the 
signals are controlled entirely by automatic devices, 
and it is used for greater safety on stretches of track 
between block towers, the block towers in' this case being 
placed only at points where an operator must work 
switches, etc. They are worked by means of electric 
circuits passing through the rails. This system, by 
means of placing the signals comparatively close together, 
allows a greater number of trains to be run with a min- 
imum amount of danger, and is therefore economical on 
roads with very heavy passenger traffic, particularly 
at certain times of the day. It is much' cheaper than 



138 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

putting block towers at the same distance apart, as the 
pay of the operator would be greater than the mainte- 
nance of the circuits. Automatic signals are entirely 
electric, or electro-pneumatic, the latter being compressed 
air controlled by electric devices. 

149. Track Circuits. — When the track relay is en- 
ergized by a current, it closes a local circuit and sets the 
signal at safety. The resistance of the relay is such 
that it requires nearly the whole current to work it and 
to keep the local current closed. Therefore, when there 
is any considerable loss of current from one rail to the 
other, the relay will not be sufficiently energized, the local 
current will be broken, and the signal will be set to danger. 




fTpaok /="^Track Relay J^'^, ""' /^^"XTrack Relay 

iB^efy (^J^Signal Magnet Track (^/gignal Magnet 

^^Signa;! Battery '^^^^^^^ ^Signal Battery 

Fig. 86. 

This diversion of current may be caused by the passage of 
a pair of wheels, the breakage of a rail, etc. Fig. 86 
represents a track circuit, signals being located near A 
and B. A and B are insulated joints, all other joints 
being bonded, and the rails bonded together on each 
side of the insulated joints. When there is no train 
passing, the signal magnet is sufficiently energized to draw 
the signals to safety ; when a train passes A, the current 
passes through the wheels and axle, causing the signal 
magnet to cease to act and the signal to set to danger.. 
When the train passes B, the signal magnet at A again 
acts and draws the signal at A to safety, and sets the sig- 
nal at B to danger. The signals are counterweighted so 



SIDETRACKS, YARDS, TERMINALS, SIGNALS. 139 

that they swing to danger when no force acts on them, 
and it takes a^force to pull them to the position showing 
safety, consequently any break in the system causes the 
signals automatically to show danger. 

150. Absolute Blocking. — Blocking is of two kinds, 
viz., absolute and permissive. In the absolute system, 
when a signal shows danger, or red, the train must come 
to a dead stop with no part of it beyond the signal, and 
wait until it gets a clear signal. In the days before the 
use of the distant signal it was quite a common occurrence 
for a train to round a curve and find a stop signal at 
such a short distance that it had to run some distance 
past the signal before it could stop, and then to back 
up until the whole train was on the proper side of the 
signal. This not only caused considerable delay, due 
to the time necessary to get up full speed after stopping, 
but also caused considerable expense in wear and damage 
to the track and train, consequently distant signals came 
into use. 

• 151. Permissive Blocking. — ^In this method a train 
is allowed to proceed under control after the caution. sig- 
nal is displayed, and although the train must stop upon 
finding a danger signal, it is much less expensive to do so 
when running at a moderate rate of speed. A train 
running at 60 miles per hour can not be brought to a full 
stop in much less than 2000 feet unless the engineman 
resorts to methods that are very injurious to both his 
engine and the track. Consequently caution, or distant, 
signals are placed about 2000 feet before coming to each 
point where a full-stop signal is liable to be displayed, 
such as a block tower, etc. Sometimes on roads where 



140 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



only one signal is used a train may be allowed to proceed 
after the operator has issued a card allowing it to do so. 
The permissive method of blocking is shown in Fig. 87. 
The train B following the train A finds the signal as 
shown, the signals C stop all trains following B absolutely, 
until B has passed D. The top signal when horizontal 
shows danger, and a train must under no circumstances 
pass it; the lower signal when horizontal means caution, 
and the train B must proceed under control, knowing 
that there is a train in the second block, F E, ahead. 
When both signals are down, as at F, the track is clear 
for at least two blocks ahead, and the train A may pro- 





F 


E 

=3: 


D 


c 

=2^ 




A 




B 

-<-r~i 





Fig. 87. 



ceed at full speed. The lower, or caution, signal in this 
case is the distant signal, and on a road with heavy 
traffic the signals may be at a distance of about 2000 feet 
apart, or even less, particularly near curves. These 
signals are worked by a double arrangement of the cir- 
cuits described in ^ 149. 

Signals are made in two forms, viz., semaphore and 
banjo. 

152. Semaphore Signals. — Semaphore signals consist 
of an arm, shown in Fig. 88, which is fastened to an up- 
right support by means of the pivot A. The arm consists 
of a light piece of board about five feet long, ten inches 
wide at the outer end, and seven or eight inches wide 




SIDETRACKS, YARDS, TERMINALS, SIGNALS. 141 

at the inner end, where it is fastened to a cast-iron arm 
plate. The arm plate contains the colored glass B, 
which gives the signal at night, and the whole arrange- 
ment is so balanced that the weight of the iron arm 
plate will hold the arm in a horizontal position, if left 
free to move about the pivot A. Home, or danger, signals 
have a square end to the arm, but 
in some cases distant, or caution, 

signals are notched on the outer ^.^^^^^ ry 

end of the arm. ^"^T 

In daytime a horizontal posi- Fig. 88. 

tion of the semaphore arm indi- 
cates danger and an inclined position indicates clear. 
, At night the signals are indicated by colored lights. 
A lamp is fastened to the upright which holds the arms 
in such position that the glass B of the proper color 
comes directly over the lamp causing this color to show. 
When the signal is set at clear, only the color of the 
light from the lamp shows. 

153. Banjo Signals. — Banjo signals con- 
sist of a flat box, shaped as shown in Fig. 89. 
A lamp is arranged in the box so that it shines 
through a lens of normal color when the signal 
Fig 89 ^^ ^^^ *^ clear. There is a mechanism by 
means of which a glass of the proper color 
may be moved so that it will cover the light and show 
this color when so desired. These signals are mounted 
on uprights at about 25 feet from the ground in the same 
general way as semaphore signals. The outer part of the 
banjo face is painted white, the signal showing only in the 
center. Signals as far as possible are placed to the 




142 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

right of the track and away from all other lights so as 
to avoid confusion, with the signal facing the trains on the 
track it is to control. The backs of the signals are usu- 
ally painted white with a red or black cross-stripe near 
the outer end of the semaphore arm, thus showing clearly 
to the engineman to which track the signal belongs. 
The faces of the signals toward the train show the colors 
which the railroad uses to indicate the condition of the 
track. 

154. Color of Signals. — The colors in most common 
use for signals are as follows: (1) red, for danger and 
stop; (2) green, for caution and run under control; 
and (3) white or yellow, for clear. The face of the upper 
semaphore arm is painted red and has a red glass to cover 
the lamp. The face of the lower semaphore arm is 
painted green and has a green glass to cover the lamp, and 
is usually notched, or fish-tailed, on the outer end. The 
normal color of the lamp is usually white, but some roads 
have adopted yellow as the clear signal. The use of the 
yellow signal is increasing rapidly, since it is difficult to 
distinguish between a white signal light and an ordinary 
light, making it very easy to mistake an ordinary light 
for a signal. In case the red or green signal lens is 
broken out, the signal will show white instead of stop 
or caution, as it should show. 

On double-track roads the lamps are made so that 
they can shine in only one direction, so that they cannot 
be confusing to a train going in the opposite direction. 
On single-track roads the lamps must shine in both 
directions. Signal lights must be placed at all switches, 



SIDETRACKS, YARDS, TERMINALS, SIGNALS. 143 

and show a caution signal when running into the point 
of a closed switch. 

On January 1, 1908, automatic block signals were in 
use on 10,800 miles, and non-automatic block signals 
on 47,900 miles of railroad in the United States. Of 
the 10,800 miles of automatic signals, 2300 miles were 
disc (banjo) signals, and 8500 miles were semaphore 
signals. 



CHAPTER V. 
MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 



Article XIII. 

ORGANIZATION OF MAINTENANCE OF WAY 

FORCES. 

155. Divisions of a Railroad. — For the purpose of 
maintenance and operation, large railroad systems are 
divided into ^^ grand divisions'' and ^^ divisions/' A 
grand division usually consists of a trunk line several 
hundred miles long, together with all its branch lines, 
and is in charge of a general superintendent, who re- 
ports to a higher officer, usually the general manager of 
the system. 

A grand division is usually divided into two or more 
divisions, each in charge of a superintendent. Divisions 
are made of such length that the mileage and work of the 
locomotives and trainmen will be the most economical, 
so that a round trip shall comprise a day's work. Train- 
men and locomotives do not go off of their division, con- 
sequently the train crew changes and a new locomotive 
is attached to a through train at the end of each division. 
Divisions are in charge of a division superintendent, who 
reports to the general superintendent. The division 

144 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 145 

superintendent is responsible for the operation and 
maintenance of his division. 

156. Subdivisions. — The maintenance of track and 
all engineering structures of a railroad is called '^main- 
tenance of way/^ and is usually referred to as '^M. W/' 
The maintenance work on a division is in charge of a 
division engineer, called on some railroads '^ assistant 
engineer/' who reports to the superintendent. Main- 
tenance of way may be divided into three general head- 
ings, viz., track, signals, and structures. The signals of 
a division may be in charge of an assistant engineer of 
signals, who reports to the signal engineer, who has 
charge of the entire signal system of a railroad, or they 
may be in charge of a supervisor of signals, who reports 
to the assistant engineer. 

The maintenance of structures, which includes all 
bridges, buildings, road crossings, fences, etc., is in 
charge of a master carpenter, who reports to the assist- 
ant engineer. In some cases the supervisor of signals 
reports to the master carpenter. 

For the purpose of maintaining the track, the division 
is divided into a number of subdivisions, each in charge 
of a supervisor, who reports to the assistant engineer. 
On some railroads track maintenance is in charge of a 
roadmaster; in which case the track department may 
be entirely separate from the engineering department. 

157. Sections. — Subdivisions are further divided into 
sections, each of which is in charge of a track foreman, 
who reports to the supervisor. The proper length of the 
section depends upon the amount of traffic, kind of 
ballast, condition of roadbed, number of tracks, and the 

10 



146 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

general requirements as to excellence of track. On a 
single-track railroad with heavy traffic the sections 
should be about four miles long, while for light traffic 
they are sometimes ten miles long. 

The amount of work necessary to keep a double-track 
road in good condition is less than double that required 
for a single-track line under the same general conditions. 
In both cases the same amount of work is required in 
maintaining ditches and fences and in keeping the grass 
cut and the part of the right-of-way not covered by the 
track in good shape. The surfacing of double track is 
less than twice that of single track, and is much safer, 
because the men need watch for a train from only one 
direction. For these reasons sections on double-track 
roads with heavy traffic should be about three miles 
long. In yards the sections are, of course, much 
shorter. 

158. Track Gang. — The size of the track gang de- 
pends upon the same conditions as given above for the 
length of section; in fact, the size of the track gang 
depends upon the length of the section, the traffic, etc., 
and vice versa. A rule sometimes stated is that there 
shall be a minimum of one man per mile of single track 
in addition to the foreman and trackwalker. As a 
usual thing very little track work can be done in winter, 
and to a certain extent, at least, the track will need a 
spring overhauling, which may require a gang of twelve 
or fifteen men. Crossties are renewed between spring 
and fall. It is customary to have at least a foreman, 
an assistant foreman, and not less than one additional 
man, making three men in all, permanently, and to take 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 147 

on men temporarily when needed. A permanent force 
is far more efficient than one that is composed prin- 
cipally of temporary men. Except in special cases, due 
to accident, railroad rails are laid in long stretches by the 
maintenance-of-way train gang and not by the regular 
track gang. Crossties, on the other hand, decay and 
wear out so irregularly that they are replaced at odd 
intervals by the regular track gang. 

159. Track Foreman. — The track foreman has charge 
of all the maintenance work on his section, subject to 
the orders of the supervisor. He hires and discharges 
the other trackmen when so directed, receipts for all 
new tools and materials received, makes requisition for 
necessary tools and materials, directs and keeps the 
time of the men, has charge of all track-signalmen, and 
sends his time book to the supervisor at the end of the 
month so that the pay-roll can be made up. He has an 
assistant foreman, who takes the place of the foreman in 
his absence and also takes charge of part of the gang when 
it is necessary to divide it and work at different places, 
but does the work of an ordinary trackman when oc- 
casion requires. It takes long experience and training 
to make a good foreman; he is responsible for the surface 
and alinement of track, and must be thoroughly familiar 
with track work. He is also responsible for the safety 
of the men and also trains, and must see that a flagman 
is stationed so that the men will have plenty of time to 
get out of the way of approachin*g trains, and also so that 
the train may be stopped in case he has the track in 
such shape that it is unsafe, which must never happen, 
however, except when the foreman has received special 



148 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

orders to do so, these orders being given in special cases 
only. 

i6o. Trackwalker. ^The duties of a trackwalker 
and the number of trackwalkers per section depend upon 
the importance and amoimt of traffic passing over the 
track to be inspected. On a light traffic road where 
there is no liability to landslides, bridges to get out of 
order, and the weather is dry so that there can be no 
washouts, the trackwalker may be detailed from the 
track gang to walk over the track in the forenoon and 
rejoin the gang in the afternoon. But if there are 
dangerous spots on the section, or there is considerable 
rain, so that landslides may be expected, the trackwalker 
should patrol his section constantly, and during such 
times a night trackwalker should also be placed on the 
section ; and if there is a particularly bad spot, such as a 
cut with slopes of doubtful stability, a special watchman 
should be stationed there. 

The day trackwalker carries a wrench, a light hammer, 
a few extra bolts, nut locks and spikes, and a flag. He 
should carefully inspect the track, particularly all 
switch connections, and see that there are no signs of 
fire near a bridge. He should tighten up all loose bolts 
and drive down spikes that have worked up. An ex- 
perienced trackwalker can in most cases tell at a glance 
whether or not a joint is loose; if he is in doubt, a tap 
with the hammer will show its condition. In winter he 
must keep snow and ice from packing hard about 
switches, frogs, guard rails^ and crossings. In order to be 
an efficient trackwalker a man should have served on 
the track gang until he is thoroughly familiar with track 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 149 

work and has proved himself careful and reliable. The 
night trackwalker makes such inspection as is possible 
by lantern light, usually inspects the track ahead of the 
fast passenger trains, and carries torpedoes^ in addition 
to his lantern^ for signaling purposes. 



Article XIV. 

SECTION TOOLS AND OUTFIT. 

i6i. Section Tool House. — In order to properly 
take care of the tools and outfit, there should be a tool 
house on each section. The manner of housing tools 
varies from a large box that can be locked, to an espe- 
cially designed house in which the tools can be stored 
properl)^ The tool house should be large enough and so 
arranged that each kind of tool has its regular place, and 
there should be separate places for each kind of track 
material, such as bolts, splices, spikes, etc., otherwise 
tools will be thrown into a heap, possibly some of them 
broken, and there will be endless delay and confusion in 
finding the particular tool or track material required. 
The tool house should also be large enough to serve as a 
workshop and to allow the permanent men to make such 
repairs as possible to tools on days that are too stormy 
for outside work. At times it is necessary to hold the men 
at the tool house in readiness for anticipated trouble, such 
as heavy snow-storms, in which case it should be possible 
to heat the house by some simply constructed stove. 



150 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



In some cases the tool house is a plain rectangular 
shed about 9 by 12 feet and 7 feet high, made of inch 
boards and covered with a pitched roof of corrugated 
iron, and without windows. A tool house of this de- 
scription is poor economy, as it serves simply to pile the 
tools together and lock them up. In Fig. 90 are shown 
the outUnes of the plan, elevation, and end view of a 
tool house. It is 10 feet high ^Ho the square, ^Vhich 
gives a garret in which surplus tools and materials can be 
stored. The stairs A may be placed in any convenient 





. , . / rm X 








/ 


— 


LUJ —r 

m 




-24i- --. 




END 


1 

i 


En 


Ha 





PLAN 



Fig. 90. 



location; in the figure they are so placed that the hand- 
car can run under the stairs. While the dimensions of 
this tool house are not very large, there is a fair amount 
of space for assorting tools and materials and placing 
them separately. The long dimension is placed parallel 
to the track, and a runway is constructed of old rails or 
3- by 4-inch timbers upon which the hand-car can be 
handled. The house is lighted, can be heated by a 
small stove, and has a small amount of room to be used 
as a workshop. 

162. Section Houses. — ^The headquarters of the 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 151 

track gang should be located with regard to both cover- 
ing the section quickly and accessibility from the divi- 
sion headquarters. The most desirable location is at 
the center of the section near a telegraph office, and the 
tool house should also be so located. It is necessarj^ 
that the foreman, at least, should reside at this point, so 
that he can receive orders at any hour of the day or 
night, and he should also be able to reach some of his 
men on hort notice. For this reason many railroads 
provide their section foreman with a residence, called the 
section house, at this point. It is not necessary to give 
plans of a section house. Each railroad has standard 
plans upon which such buildings are erected. In some 
sections of the country where there are few inhabitants 
and the different members of the track would otherwise 
live widely scattered, it will be economy for the railroad 
to provide houses for all the men. Often this arrange- 
ment is economical for both the companj^ and the men. 
The railroad has the men where they are always ready 
for service and can charge them a rental which will pay 
the interest on the money invested, and the men get a 
better house for the money than they can rent in any 
other way. 

163. Tools. — Each section should have enough tools 
to supply every man in the gang with an outfit for each 
kind of work that is required on the section, and enough 
extra tools to allow some to be away at the repair shop. 
At the supervisor's headquarters of the subdivision all 
track tools should be carried in stock, both to replace 
worn-out tools and also to equip an extra force in case of 
emergency, such as a washout or wreck. The follow- 



152 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



ing is taken from the standards of the N. Y. C. and 
H. R. R. R: 



TABLE XVII. 



Tools. 


Yard. 


Single 
Track. 


Double 
Track. 


Four 
Track. 


Hammers, Spiking 


6 

1 
2 


4 

1 
2 


4 

1 
2 


4 ' 


" Nail 


1 


*^ Napping* 


4 


Bars Claw 


4 

7 
1 
8 


3 
6 

1 
6 


3 

8 
1 
8 


4 


^^ Lining 


8 


" Pinch 


1 


" Tamping 


8 






Picks, Clay 


10 
6 


4 
6 


6 
10 


8 


'* Tamping * 


10 






Shovels, Long Handle 

" Scoop 


2 
6 
6 
6 


2 
2 
6 
6 


2 
2 
6 
6 


2 
2 


" Snow 


6 


Short Handle 


6 


Forks Ballast * 


6 


6 


8 


10 






Wrenches, Track 


6 

2 


4 
1 


4 
1 


4 


^' Screw 


1 






Axes, Common 


1 
2 
2 


1 
2 
2 


1 
2 
2 


1 


" Hand 


2 


Adzes 


2 






r Red 

Signal, Flags \ Green 

[ White 

'^ Lanterns 


2 
2 
2 
2 


4 
4 
2 
2 . 


4 
4 
2 
2 


4 
4 
2 
2 







* Used with stone ballast. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 153 

In addition to the above, the following list of mis- 
cellaneous tools is needed on all sections, regardless of 
the kind of track or ballast: 

1 Hand-car 2 Wheelbarrows 

1 Push-car 4 Brooms 

2 Track jacks 2 Oil-cans 

2 Track gauges 2 Post-hole diggers 

4 Rail tongs 1 Grindstone 

2 Brush hooks 1 Switch key 

Scythes and snaths 1 50-foot tape 

1 Level board 1 Ditching line 

1 Spike puller 1 Water pail and dipper 

1 Sighting board 2 Hay-rakes 

6 Track chisels 3 Grubbing hoes 

1 Ratchet drill and 4 bits 1 Cross-cut saw 

1 Sledge-hammer 1 Rail fo^k 
1 Carpenter's kit 

The above table and list show the tools with which 
each track gang is supposed to be supplied ; every article 
mentioned will be needed in the ordinary work of the 
track gang. In addition to the above tools there are a 
number which willbe needed occasionally, but which 
are not absolutely necessary on each and every section, 
such as rail benders, etc. If the section has a rock cut . 
with unstable slopes from which rock maj^ slide on the 
track, a complete drilling and blasting outfit should also 
be added. These tools must all be stored in the section 
tool house, which shows the necessity for a tool house of 
ample size. 

164. Spiking Hammers. — In table XVII three kinds 
of hammers are given as necessary on each section, viz., 
spiking and nail hammers on all sections, and napping 
hammers in addition for stone ballast. 

A spiking hammer, sometimes called a spike maul, 
is shown in Fig. 91, A. It is square in section near the 



154 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



center, octagonal (square with the corners beveled off) 
in section toward the ends, and circular on the ends, or 
striking faces. The hammer shown is 13^ inches in 
length and 2 inches square at the center, one side of the 
hammer being 6| inches long and ^ inch in diameter at 
the end for spiking in narrow confines, such as between 
the guard rail and the main rail, the other side of the 
hammer being 6J inches long and If inches in diameter 
at the end. The edges of the ends are beveled off so that 
the cross-section of the ends is circular, to prevent pieces 
from chipping from the spiking ends after considerable 




1 





'^ 


© 


1- w*- ' 




END VIEW 



. c 
Fig. 91. 



use. An oval-shaped hole, \\ by \ inches, extends en- 
tirely through the head, and a hickory handle, 3 feet 
4 inches long, is fastened in it by means of a wedge. A 
spiking hammer of this size weighs ten pounds and is 
made of steel of such hardness on the ends as will best 
stand the work required. If it is too soft, it will batter 
out of shape ; or if it is too hard, pieces of metal will break 
from the head — either fault quickly rendering the ham- 
mer useless. 

The nail hammer mentioned is an ordinary carpenter's 
claw-hammer, and is used in repairing fences and all 
work in which nails of ordinary size are used. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 155 

165. Napping Hammers. — Napping hammers are 
used to break pieces of stone, or spalls, into the proper 
size for ballast. They should not be too heavy; the 
weight of the standard hammer shown in Fig. 91, B, is 
3^ pounds. It is symmetrical in form, 5 inches long, 2 
inches square at the center, and circular ends ^ inch in 
diameter. The cross-section toward the ends is oc- 
tagonal, the same as in the spiking hammer. It is made 
of steel with the same requirements for hardness as a 
spiking hammer, and is attached to the same kind of 
handle. 

i66. Sledge Hammers. — A sledge-hammer, men- 
tioned among the miscellaneous tools, is used for various 
purposes where a heavy hammer is necessary, such as 
breaking up large rocks and for cutting rails into special 
lengths with the aid of track chisels. Sledge-hammers 
are made in two general shapes and weigh from 6 to 30 
poimds. The sledge-hammer showm in Fig. 91, C, is 
symmetrical in shape, 8^ inches long, 3^ inches square 
at the middle, 3^ inches in diameter at the ends, octag- 
onal in shape for intermediate sections, as shown in the 
end view, and weighs 25 poimds. The larger sledge- 
hammers have an oval hole, or eye, extending through 
the head, by means of which they are attached to the 
handle, which is usualh' 3 feet long. The other form of 
sledge-hammer has one-half of the head formed as showTi 
in Fig. 91, C, but the other half of the head is shaped like 
a wedge, with a rounded blunt point, and is enough 
longer to give the same total weight to the hammer. 
This latter form is most convenient for breaking large 
rocks. 



156 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



The sledge-hammer in general use usually weighs 12 
or 14 pounds, has one of the two shapes described above, 
with the dimensions varied accordingly. They are made 
of steel with the same qualities as for spiking and napping 
hammers. 

167. Claw Bars. — In table XVII four classes of bars 
are given as essential on all sections, viz., claw, lining, 
pinch, and tamping bars. 

A claw bar * is shown in Fig. 92. The claw is 4|^ 
inches long, 2^ inches wide at the widest part, is curved 




SECTIONS 
C-D AND E-F 



^]f 



Fig. 92. 



upward so that the point is 4| inches above the back of 
the bar, and has an opening -^ inch wide and 2-|- inches 
long in the clear. The bar is two inches square for a 
distance of 2^ inches, and in the next 2 inches changes to 
the octagonal form shown in section C D. The octag- 
onal part is 14 inches long and then changes to the 
circular cross-section shown in section E F. The balance 
of the bar is circular in cross-section and tapers down to 
a diameter of 1^ inches and has a wedge-shaped end 2^ 
inches long. The total length of the bar is 5 feet, and it 

* P. R. R. Standard claw bar. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 157 

weighs about 30 pounds. The bar described above is 
heavier than the bar used as a standard on some other 
railroads, the usual weight being about 25 pounds, the 
lower part being If inches square, and the other dimen- 
sions, except the length, being correspondingl)^ less. 
Claw bars are made of steel. In some cases the baci; of 
the claw is made thicker, as indicated by the dotted line 
in Fig. 92, in which case they are called goose-neck bars. 

In pulling a spike that holds firmly, it is customary to 
first strike the spike vertically on the head with a spik- 
ing hammer to destroy any bond between the spike and 
the tie due to rust. The bar is then held in a nearly 
vertical position and the claw forced aroimd the head of 
the spike. It is often difficult to get the claw to take 
hold of the spike. Sometimes this can be aided by first 
using the other end of the bar, or by driving the claw and 
the head of the spike by hitting the back of the bar with 
a spiking hammer. After the claw takes hold the spike 
is drawn by pulling the bar into a horizontal position. 
Where there is much pulling to be done, it is sometimes 
economical to have a nearly straight claw bar mth the 
other end square with which to start the spikes. The 
straight bar can be held in position and driven under 
the spike and then, by pulHng the straight bar to a hori- 
zontal position, using a piece of wood or a spike as a 
fulcrum, the spike wiU be moved enough to allow the 
goose-necked bar to be used. Steel is usually relaid by 
the construction train force, which usually has one or 
more patent devices for pulling spikes. 

i68. Lining Bars. — Lining bars are used for throw- 
ing track into line laterally. They have a symmetrical 



158 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

pyramid or wedge-shaped end. This end of the bar 
is driven into the ballast, forming a fulcrum, the bar 
being in a slanting position resting against the base of 
the rail. A number of bars being properly placed, with 
one or two men to each bar, the word being given, all 
heave together and throw the track laterally. The 
ballast is first partially removed from around the ties. 
The lining bar shown in Fig. 93 is 5 feet 4 inches long, 
made of steel, and weighs 24 pounds. It has a square 
pyramid, or diamond, point, 2| inches long, the lower 
part of the bar is li inches square for 1^ feet, the middle 
of the bar is octagonal for IJ feet, and the upper 2^ feet 
of the bar is round and f inch in diameter at the end. 






-5'i^ 



-2'614- 



FiG. 93. 



It is found that bars with points shaped as described 
above give the best hold ; it is therefore more econom- 
ical to have these special bars for lining track than to 
use some of the other bars, although pinch bars are 
sometimes used for lining track. 

169. Pinch Bars. — There is hardly any part of track 
work in which pinch bars are not used; in some cases 
they give a better hold and make a better bar for lining 
purposes than the regular diamond-pointed lining bar. 
With the exception of the point, the pinch bar has the 
same general shape as the lining bar, is made of steel, 
and weighs 24 pounds. The point of the pinch bar, Fig. 
94, is 2j inches long and wedge-shaped. The lower part 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 159 

of the bar is 1} inches square for a distance of 1 foot, the 
middle is 1| inches octagonal for 1 J feet, and the upper 
part is round, tapering down to a diameter of | of an inch 
at the end. Pinch bars are made with the straight 
chisel point shown, or with the point slightly curved up 
so as to give more of a fulcrum when 
prying. 

In proportioning any of the above 
bars they are made as short as con- 
sistent with good leverage and as 
light as possible and still withstand 
the force applied. Many different 
proportions are used, some being as short as 4| feet and 
weighing 20 pounds. While there should not be any un- 
necessary weight, it would not be economical to make 
them so light that they would bend under ordinary use. 

170. Tamping Bars. — Tamping bars consist of a 
plain bar to which is fastened a rectangular piece of 
soft steel, and are used to tamp ballast under the ties. 

Tamping bars should not be 

\ too heavy, as a heavy bar 

. jjy would not only be hard to 

J handle continuously, but will 




YiQ, 95. not do any better work than 

a bar of the proper weight. 
In Fig. 95 is shown one of the simplest forms of tamping 
bars. It consists of a piece of soft steel, 3 by 3 by ^ inch, 
welded to a 5-foot bar of f inch round steel, the whole bar 
being 5^ feet long and Aveighing about 10 pounds. There 
are a number of patented forms of tamping bars, the 
principal object being to give a better hand hold. The 



160 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



|-inch handle described above is so small that it is diffi- 
cult to control the bar. Some railroads do not use 
tamping bars at all, dirt or gravel ballast being tamped 
with shovels, and stone ballast with tamping picks. 

171. Picks. — Clay picks have one chisel point and 
one diamond point and are shaped as shown in Fig. 96. 
They are made of soft steel, and after they have become 
worn and dulled they are drawn out and reshaped by a 
blacksmith. The hole for the handle is larger on the 
convex side of the pick; the handle is held in place by 
having it fit snugly in the hole and by holding the handle 
in a vertical position with the pick head down and by 



-2^0^ 



Fig. 96. 



striking it a couple of sharp blows on some firm surface. 
To remove the handle from the pick for repairs, hold on 
to the pick and strike the handle a blow on a firm surface; 
this loosens the handle, and it is pulled through the eye 
of the pick. 

A tamping pick is shaped like a clay pick except the 
chisel end is made shorter and the chisel is replaced by a 
rectangular piece of soft steel, 2 by f inches in cross- 
section, similar to the end of a tamping bar. 

172. Shovels. — Four kinds of shovels are mentioned 
in table XVII, viz., long-handle, scoop, snow, and 
short-handle shovels. The long-handle shovel consists 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 161 

of a wooden handle 1^ inches in diameter, which is 
fastened to a steel blade in the same manner as the short- 
handle shovel in Fig. 97. The blades are made in two 
forms, viz., square, as shown in Fig. 97a, and pointed, 
as in Fig. 97fe. The handle is straight, except near the 
blade, as shown in the figure; the curve in the lower part 




Fig. 97a. 

of the handle causes the handle to set at such an angle 
to the blade that when the back of the blade lies hori- 
zontally on the ground, the upper end of the handle is at 
such a height from the ground that a man can throw his 
weight against the shovel when digging. The blades are 
about 12 inches long and 9 J or 10 inches wide. Long- 




FiG. 976. 

handle shovels are used in digging holes and narrow 
ditches. 

Scoop shovels consist of a square-pointed blade about 
12 inches wide, 13 or 14 inches long, and scoop shaped to 
a depth of 3 inches, the blade being attached to a short 
wooden handle with a grip on the end, as in Fig. 97. 
The end grip on the shovel handle^ Fig. 97, has an open- 
11 



162 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

ing large enough to allow the workman to place all four 
fingers through it. These grips are either made out of 
the same piece of wood as the rest of the handle, or con- 
sist of a malleable iron casting which is fastened to the 
straight part of the wooden handle. Scoop shovels are 
used to handle large quantities of light material, such as 
ashes, cinders, or snow. 

Snow shovels are usually made' of wood shod with 
iron, and are of so many sizes and descriptions and so 
familiar to all that no detailed description will be given. 

Short-handle shovels are used more than an}^ other 
track implement. They have a blade about 12 inches 
long and 9^ or 10 inches wide, and a short wooden handle 
with a grip on the end, and are slightly scoop shaped. 
The blades are either square pointed, Fig. 97a, or round 
pointed. Fig. 976. The handle near the blade is curved 
in the same manner as in the long-handle shovel, and 
when the back of the blade is flat on the ground, the grip 
end of the handle is about 18 inches above the ground, 
which allows the workman to push it with the side of the 
leg at the height of the knee. The square-pointed short- 
handle shovel. Fig. 97a, universally known among rail- 
road men as a ^^No. 2 shovel,'^ is one of the most used 
railroad implements; in construction work it divides 
honors with the clay pick. On track work it is not only 
used for all shoveling purposes, but also for tamping 
the track, more miles of track being tamped with the 
shovel than with tamping bai;s and picks. 

Shovels wear out by the blade wearing thin and the 
metal breaking at the point of the blade. After the 
blade wears thin it will bend easily, even if it will not 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 



163 



break, and it is a common sight to see a workman using 
the rail for an anvil and straightening the point of his 
shovel with a spiking hammer. Shovel handles are 
usually riveted fast to the blade, but there are a number 
of patent handles in which the parts may be replaced. 
Except in case of accident or carelessness, the handle will 
always outlast the blade, consequently it is not econom- 
ical to use an expensive patent handle. 

173. Ballast Forks. — A fourteen-tine ballast fork 
is shown in Fig. 98. The tines are 13|^ inches long, and at 




Fig. 98. 

the point are y^ of an inch wide and -^ of an inch wide at 
the upper end, | of a inch thick, and have wedge-shaped 
points. When the space between the points is f of an 
inch, the total width is 12f inches. The handle is the 
same as the handle of a short-handle or scoop shovel. 
Under some circumstances ballast is handled with a 
No. 2 shovel, but when fine material and dirt are to be 
excluded, which is in most cases, a ballast fork is used. 

174. Wrenches. — ^Two wrenches are given in the 
table, viz., track and screw wrenches. A screw wrench 



164 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

is one that can be adjusted to any size nut. They are 
of two general forms, viz., pipe-wrenches, for gripping 
round surfaces, and monkey-wrenches, for gripping nuts 
with plane surfaces. These forms of wrenches are used 
by trackmen only in special cases. 

Track wrenches consist of a straight bar of | by l^-inch 
steel, with one end upset and formed as in Fig. 99. When 
bolts of the same size are used in all the rail-joints on 
the section, the wrench has a grip on only one end ; but 
if bolts of two different sizes are used, it is better to have 
each end of the wrench with a grip, so that the same 




Fig. 99. 

wrench will fit both sizes. The diameter of the bolt is 
stamped plainly on the head of the wrench; Fig. 99 
shows a wrench for a 1-inch bolt, the grip being 1{^ 
inches for the nut. There is liable to be a slight variation 
in the size of nuts for bolts of the same size, and the grip 
of the wrench should be large enough to take hold of all 
the nuts for which it is intended. The wrench shown is 
33 inches long and has the narrow edges rounded. In 
some cases the handle part of wrenches is made of round 
iron with the flat head welded on. 

175. Axes. — Common axes and hand axes are known 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 165 

and recognized by everybody, and it is not necessary to 
describe them. They are not used often in track work, 
but when they are needed, nothing else will take their 
place. 

An adze is the most convenient instrument for cutting 
horizontal surfaces, and is generally used by the track 
gang to trim the top of the tie so that it will give a good 
seat for the base of the rail, particularly in relaying rails 
on ties that are slightly worn. In case the old spike holes 
are plugged, the plug is driven with the axe or hand axe 
and is cut off level with the face of the tie with the adze. 
All three forms of axes are also used in making fences or 
in any kind of timber work. 

176, Flags and Lanterns, — Signal flags consist of a 
rectangular piece of red, green, or white cloth or bunting 
nailed to a round stick about one inch in diameter and a 
few inches longer than the narrowest dimension of the 
flag, the shorter dimension being along the stick. A set 
of flags should be carried by each track gang. Track- 
work is dangerous and must be done without interfering 
with traflftc as far as possible, but the gang must be pro- 
tected by a flagman. T\Tien a red flag is displayed, the 
train must stop ; if a green flag is shown, it must proceed 
under control, which is sometimes necessarj^ when re- 
surfacing track ; a white flag means all clear. 

The lanterns used on a section are usually red and 
white, and two, the number mentioned in the table, 
seem a very inadequate supply for a section. In case of 
a washout it is quite possible for both tracks to be out of 
service, in which case two red lanterns, one on each 
track, will be necessary. 



166 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

177. Hand- and Push-cars. — Hand-cars consist of a 
platform mounted upon four wheels and driven by a 
rack and lever attached to two bars. These bars are as 
long as the car is wide and stand at right angles to the 
track-; the bars are pumped by six men, three facing 
forward and three backward. Hand -cars must have 
an efficient brake, and have hand-holds at each corner 
of the car, so that they can be lifted to and from the track. 
The hand-car is used to carry the section gang and tools 
to and from their work. 

Push-cars consist of a plain platform mounted on four 



z.\<^ g 



iw^ 




Fig. 100. 

wheels, and are used to carry ties and rails to the point 
where they are to be laid in track. Both of these cars 
are essential on all sections, except that the hand-car is 
not necessary in yard work. The longer the section, 
the greater the necessity for a good hand-car. 

178. Track Gauge. — The two essentials of a track 
gauge are — (1) that it shall be forked on one end, as shov/n 
in the plan. Fig. 100, and (2) that the projections shall 
f\t against the gauge of the rail and give the required 
gauge of track.. In the elevation, Fig. 100, three pro- 
jections are shown: the outer projections give the gauge 
of track, and the projection A gives the proper spacing, 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 167 

If inches, of guard rails from the main rail. The faces 
a b should be vertical for the A. S. C. E. section, and 
should have the direction of the side of the head of rail 
in use. The curve c is to prevent a flow of metal in the 
head of the rail from preventing its being put in true 
gauge. The forked end is to insure that the gauge will 
be placed normal to the rails. The ends of the gauge pro- 
ject just beyond the centers of the heads of the rails. 
Gauges constructed in a number of different ways are in 
use; the gauge shown in the figure consists of malleable 
iron ends with sockets into which is screwed a piece of 
round, kiln-dried white oak, 1 J inches in diameter. The 
gauge is made as light in weight as is consistent with 
strength by making the cross-sections of the castings 
T- and U-shaped; sometimes hollow cylindrical sections 
are used. 

In using the gauge one rail is spiked; the other rail is 
placed approximately in position; the gauge is laid on 
the rails; the loose rail is then thrown over until it is in 
true gauge, and is then spiked. 

179. Track Jacks. — Track jacks are used to raise the 
track to the proper elevation when the track is being 
tamped into surface. The Barrett jack shown in Fig. 101 
is used extensively. The point c and the part e are 
fastened to a solid bar which can be raised by pumping 
the part d and a ratchet attachment. In raising the part 
ce Si wooden handle about 2 inches in diameter and three 
feet long is inserted into the socket d, and two men force 
the handle downward, the ratchet allowing the handle to 
be raised without resistance. While tamping, the handle 
is removed so that it will not interfere with the workmen. 



168 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



The jack can be released, or lowered, by moving the 
clutch / on the side of the jack and forcing the handle up- 
ward, causing the part c^ to be lowered. In some 
forms of this jack it is released by striking another form 

of clutch on the side of the jack 
with the wooden handle, where- 
upon the part c e falls immedi- 
ately to its lowest position, the 
jack collapsing as soon as the 
clutch is struck. In jacking 
the track the point c is placed 
as low as possible, part of the 
ballast is removed so that the 
base a h will have a firm sup- 
port and the point c will grip 
the base of the rail; the mov- 
able wooden handle is then in- 
serted into the socket d and 
the track raised until the top 
of the rail is at the desired elevation. 

i8o. Rail Tongs. — Rail tongs are used in handling 
rails, one man taking hold of each handle of the tongs. 
They are made of IJ-inch 
round iron with the ends 
made rectangular in sec- 
tion and shaped as in 
Fig. 102, being fastened to fig. 102. 

gether by a f-inch rivet. 

The jaws of the tongs are opened and slipped over the 
head of the rail; when being carried, the weight of the rail 
causes the jaws to grip the rail. A 33-foot 100-pound 




Fig. 101. 




MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 169 

rail weighs 1100 pounds; therefore six pairs of tongs and 
twelve men will be required if the rail is to be moved 
more than a short distance; eight men could carry it a 
short distance, and four men could slide it along. 

Tie tongs are similar to rail tongs except they are made 
of lighter iron and the jaws are larger, wider apart, and 
pointed so that they can be forced into opposite sides of 
the tie. 

i8i. Brush Hooks and Scythes. — A brush hook 
(Fig. 103) consists of a sickle-shaped piece of steel about 
-j^ of an inch thick on the back and 2 inches wide, with 
a cutting-edge on the entire concave outline. It is 
fastened to an ordinary axe handle by means of two iron 
straps, about ^ by J inch in 
section,, which pass around 
the handle and are bolted 
through the blade. More Fig. 103. 

small brush can be cut with 

a brush hook in the same time and with greater ease than 
with any other implement. It is very useful in clearing 
up right-of-way and in trimming small branches from 
trees. Including blade and handle, it does not weigh 
more than three pounds. 

For section work scythes should be of two forms, viz., 
grass and brier scythes. The snath, or handle, is the 
same for both. The grass scythe is long and light and 
is not strong enough to cut anything tougher than 
grass or green weeds. The blade of the brier scythe is 
short and thick, and can be used to cut large weeds and 
even small bushes. 

182. Level Boards. — The simplest form of level 




170 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

board, or track level, consists of a piece of plank If or 
1| inches thick, and notched on one end, planed on all 
four sides, with the top and bottom faces exactly parallel 
and a level bubble set in the top edge. The depth a e 
of the board depends upon the degree of the curves on 
the section and the standards of the railroad. The 
notches b c. Fig. 104, are made |, J, or 1 inch deep. If 
the notches are made 1 inch deep, the distances c d may 
be made 3 or 4 inches long; but if they are made only 
I of an inch deep, c d is made 2 inches long. The length 
a b must be at least 5 feet, so that the board can be used 
for level track. A hand hole is cut in the board at a lo- 



I I I I I izi 



Fig. 104. 

cation such that the board will balance when lifted and 
will carry in a horizontal position. Either soft or hard 
wood may be used, there being a number of arguments in 
favor of using soft wood, such as white pine, the argu- 
ment against using soft wood being that the bearing 
surfaces wear out sooner. There are a number of elab- 
orately designed track levels, the bearing surfaces being 
shod with metal, and the difference of level is obtained 
by means of a movable arm which moves in a vertical 
direction and is fastened by a set-screw. Unless handled 
very carefully, metal-shod boards are inclined to jar the 
bubble out of level. 
183. Track Chisels and Punches. — A track chisel, 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 



171 



or rail cutter, is shown in Fig. 105, A. It consists of a 
piece of crucible steel made in the shape of a hammer, 
and is fastened to a hammer handle. The cutting-edge 
is curved, IJ inches wide, and the thickness at the top 
of the bevel and the beveled edges make an equilateral 
triangle | of an inch on the side. In cutting, a mark is 
made around the rail, the chisel is placed on the mark 
and struck with a sledge-hammer, the chisel is moved 
along slowly until there is a cut entirely around the rail, 
and this is repeated mitil the cut is deep enough to allow 








,Jl^- 



FiG. 105. 

the rail to be broken in two. If a short piece is being 
cut from the rail^ after the rail has been cut to a sufficient 
depth, a blow on the end of the rail will cause it to break. 
If the cut is near the center of the rail, it can be broken 
after a cut of sufficient depth has been made, by raising 
the rail and dropping it across a block raised above the 
general groimd level. 

Track punches, Fig. 105, B, are made of crucible steel 
and fastened to a hammer handle the same as a track 
chisel. The punch end is slightly larger at the extreme 



172 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

end than it is a distance back from the end, in order to 
prevent it from sticking fast when driven in. They are 
usually about {^ of an inch square, and are used for re- 
moving old bolts and rivets, and in some cases they are 
used to force the holes in the rail and splice-bars into 
line, so that a bolt can be put in, particularly where rails 
of different sizes are being spliced by a special joint. 

Track chisels and punches are used in case of emer- 
gency by the section gang, such as after a wreck, when 
the track must be fixed in the shortest possible time, or 
in laying a switch. 

184. Rail Fork. — A rail fork is used in turning rails 




Fig. 106. 

over. The prongs of the fork are slipped over the base 
of the rail. Rail forks are made out of mild steel; the 
general dimensions are as shown in Fig. 106; the slot is 
I of an inch wide and 4 inches deep, the prongs are If 
inches thick, the lower part of the handle is l|-inch 
octagonal steel, and the balance of the handle is roimd, 
tapering down to 1-inch diameter at the end, the total 
length being 33 inches. Rail forks are not needed often, 
but they are very convenient and save a great deal of 
time in some cases, such as in cutting a rail, in which 
case the rail must be turned repeatedly. 

185. Grubbing Hoe and Post-hole Digger .~A 
grubbing hoe, or maddock, is shown in Fig. 107; it con- 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 



173 



sists of two blades whose cutting-edges are set at right 
angles to each other. The eye for the handle is larger 
on the outside and the handle is placed in the head in 
exactly the same manner as in a pick. It is made of 
wrought-iron with steel cutting-edges, and the cutting- 
edges are tempered so that they are not hard enough 




Fig. 107. 

to break if a stone is struck in digging. The lower blade 
is about 3^ inches wide, and is curved at such an angle 
to the handle that when the workman holds the handle 
at an ordinary height, the end of the blade is horizontal, so 
that the surface of the ground can be skinned off. The 



DC 



Fig. 108. 



grubbing hoe is better than the clay pick for loosening 
material when the material is full of roots and does not 
contain too many stones, the upper edge being used as an 
axe to cut roots. Grubbing hoes may be bought in several 
sizes and weights, the head weighing from 4 to 6 pounds. 
A post-hole digger, shown in Fig. 108, consists of a 



174 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

blade about 12 inches long, 3 inches wide, and | of an 
inch thick, welded to a wrought-iron bar 5 feet long 
and 1 inch in diameter. About 3 inches of the end of 
the blade is made of steel and has a chisel edge so that the 
hole can be dug with vertical sides, and is tempered the 
same as the ends of picks and grubbing hoes. The upper 
end of the bar is pointed so that it can be used in loosening 
small stones that obstruct the digging. The whole bar 
is about 6 feet long and weighs 17 pounds. The post 
digger is proportioned for the sole purpose of digging 
holes, and is not strong enough to use as a crowbar. 

i86. Carpenter's Kit. — ^The carpenter's kit should 
consist of a tool-box containing at least the following 
tools : 1 auger, 1 brace, 2 brace-bits, 1 file, 1 nail hammer, 
1 hatchet, 1 draw-knife, and 1 handsaw. These tools, 
together with a grindstone, form the necessary rainy-day 
repair outfit. Tools with tempered steel edges can be 
sharpened by grinding when the edges are not so badly 
worn that they must be drawn out and reshaped by a 
blacksmith, and the parts of stormy days in which the 
track gang cannot do regular work can be profitably 
spent in putting tools in good order. Extra hammer 
and pick handles are always kept in the section tool house, 
and the draw-knife will be found very useful in fitting 
them, particularly if there should be a bench vise in the 
outfit. 

' Descriptions of spike pullers and ratchet drills can be 
foimd among the advertisements of any engineering 
paper, and the rest of the miscellaneous tools mentioned 
in T[ 163 are so well known that they need no description. 
If the members of the track gang are permanent, as they 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 



175 



should be, they soon become proficient in hancUing all 
the tools in use on the section, and the number of tools 
going back and forth to headquarters for repairs is re- 
duced to a minimum. 



Article XV. 




83 



TRACK SIGNS. 

187. Division Posts and Mile Posts. — Each railroad 
has its own standard track signs, and although they vary 
considerably, there is enough similarity in the different 
standards in use to enable 
one who is familiar with the 
meaning of signs along one 
railroad to understand those 
of another railroad. The 
principal sign that interests 
the general traveling public 
is the mile post, the other 
signs being for the guidance 
of the employees. Sign posts 
vary in detail design from a 

square wooden post to posts built of angle irons and iron 
plates and set in a concrete base. 

The simplest form of division post consists of the square 
wooden post shown in Fig. 109, A. It is ten inches 
square, has a pyramid top four inches high, is 7 feet long, 
and is planted 2| feet in the ground, leaving 4^ feet 



Fig. 109. 



176 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

above ground. The names of the adjacent divisions 
are painted on the post, as shown in the figure, in letters 
four or five inches high. Usually the post is painted 
white and the letters black, but sometimes they are 
painted black with white letters. 

Mile posts are similar in form and dimensions to divi- 
sion posts, and are marked as shown in Fig. 109, B, 
the numbers representing the number of miles from each 
of the termini, the sum of the numbers being the length 
of the railroad in miles. Division and mile posts are 
set with a clearance of not less than eight feet from the 
gauge line of the outer rail in fills, and just beyond the 
ditch in cuts. 

i88. Subdivision, Section, and Yard Limit Posts. — 
In Fig. 110, A, is shown the general arrangement of the 
Pennsylvania Railroad ^^supervisor's division^' and ^^ sec- 
tion' ' signs. The numbers are placed on a cast-iron 
oval plate, 10^ by 20f inches, mounted on a 3-inch 
wrought-iron pipe which is set in a stone or bed of con- 
crete 2| feet square and 4 feet deep when necessary. 
The edges of the cast-iron plate are raised | of an inch, 
the panels are sunk ^ of an inch, and the figures are flush 
with the face of the plate. The post and plate are 
painted black and the numbers white. In Fig. 110, B, 
is shown the back of the plate, the diagonal strengthening 
ribs, and the socket into which the post fits. The upper 
plate in Fig. 110, A, shows the '^supervisor's division 
number," referred to in previous paragraphs as '^ sub- 
divisions,'' and the lower plate shows the section numbers. 
The post in the figure shows that supervisor No. 5 has 
sections number — to 65, and supervisor No. 6 has 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 



177 



sections number 66 to — . For intermediate sections 
the sign post is similar to Fig. 110, A, without the top 
plate, the section sign being in both cases 5^ feet above 
the ground. 

At yard limits a sign post of the dimensions sho^vn 
in Fig. 110, C, is placed. It is made of cast-iron in the same 
general way as the section signs, is lettered as shown in 
the figure, and is placed eight feet above the groimd. 




Tig. 110. 



189. Whistle and Ring Posts. — These posts may be 
cast-iron or wood, as described in If 187, Fig. 109, ex- 
cepting the top of the post is 5^ feet above the top of 
rail. On a whistle post a W 7^ inches high and on a 
ring post an R 7J inches high is painted. They are 
painted according to the same rules mentioned in 
If 187. These posts are set facing the approaching train 
at the distance before each grade crossing, station, etc., 
that will give the best warning. 

190. Road Crossing Signs. — Railroads are compelled 
12 



178 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



by law to erect signs giving warning at all road cross- 
ings, particularly grade crossings. Formerly these 
signs read as in Fig. Ill, B, ^^Look out for the Loco- 
motive/^ but at the present time the wording in Fig. 
Ill, A, ^^ Railroad Crossing, Stop, Look, and Listen,'^ is 
in most general use, the old wording still being in force 
in some States. It has been said that the man who ad- 
vised the use of the words, ''Stop, Look, and Listen,'' 
received the highest price per word ever received by a 
writer. These signs are made in many different ways. 




Fig. 111. 



The standard Pennsylvania Railroad signs consist of an 
oval plate 18| inches high and 4 feet wide, made of cast- 
iron, on the same general plan of the section sign plates, 
and mounted in the same way, the words railroad^ 
crossing, look, and, and listen being 3 inches high, and 
stop 4 inches high, and in the other sign the words for 
the are 3 inches high and all the rest of the Avords are 4 
inches high; the face of the letters and the border are 
painted white on a black ground, and the back of the 
sign and the post are painted black. 



lU 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 179 

191. Trespass Signs. — It is customary for railroads 
to place trespass signs at certain points along its line. 
The general trespass sign usually reads, ^^ Caution! do not 
walk nor trespass on the railroad/^ These signs ar^ 
usually placed at all points where there is a break in the 
right-of-way fence. At each end of a bridge is placed 
a sign which reads, ^^ Caution! do not walk nor trespass 
on this bridge/' Each railroad has standard forms for 
these signs/ the same way that they do for all other signs. 
At private crossings a sign is placed which reads, ^^Not 
a public crossing : all persons are warned not 

to trespass.'' i^^^- 

192. Property Corner-stones and Center -rr — n^- 
Line Markers. — A property corner-stone is 
shown in Fig. 112. It consists of a rough ] 
block of granite about 10 by 10 by 34 inches. -^- 
The top is dressed 6 inches square and 4 
inches high, with the edges beveled off at an 
angle of 45 degrees, leaving the top face 5 T^'^ 
inches square. In the top is made a triangu- Fig. 112. 
lar shaped cut forming a cross, the center of 

the cross being the exact property corner. These stones 
arc set at all property corners, and also at all angle points 
in the property lines. In most cases a hole about one- 
half inch in diameter is drilled in the top of the stone 
instead of the cross to mark the exact corner. 

Center line markers should be placed every three or 
four hundred feet on a tangent and every himdred feet 
on curves, and also at each P C, P. C. C, and P. T., so 
that the track will not be gradually thro^vn out of true 
line. In most cases 3- by 3-inch white oak stakes are 



180 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

used, and in some cases stone monuments similar to 
Fig. 112 are set with the top flush with the top of the 
ballast. The Pennsylvania R. R. uses an iron center 
line marker, the outline of the cross-sections of which 
is square, with round re-entrant corners, three inches 
at the top and two and one-half inches at the bottom; 
its total length is three feet, the point being six inches 
long. The top has a cross one-half inch deep in it, simi- 
lar to the top of the property stone cross in Fig. 112. 
These markers are driven on the center line of track, and 
enable the track foreman to keep his track in true line. 
193. Road Crossings. — On account of the open 
space necessary along the gauge of rail, wheels of vehicles 
in crossing over the rails are very destructive to the 
roadway, and it is very difficult to construct a road 
crossing that will hold a good top surface. It has been 
foimd that the most serviceable roadway consists of a 
framework of planks filled in with ordinary ballast to 
within a short distance from the surface, and covered with 
a top dressing of fine crushed stone, preferably trap rock. 
The planks used are 12 inches wide, 4 inches thick, and as 
long as required. The plan and section of a road cross- 
ing are shown in Fig. 113, A and B. It consists of two 
planks outside of each rail, or outside of the outside 
rails when the railroad is double-track, one plank on the 
inside of each rail, and a piece of plank at each side of the 
road crossing between rails^ forming a box. Usually 
a row of stone blocks is placed along the side of the outer 
planks as shown. Fig. 113, B, gives the elevation of this 
arrangement. The planks are spiked to the ties and the 
middle filled with broken stone, as described above. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 



181 



The arrangement of the planks next the rail is shown 
in Fig. 114, A; the top surface of the outside plank is 
placed I inch below the top of the rail, and the top of the 



A _. m 




\ I I 1 r 1 T I r r I 














^1 


















— 1 








3 


A 
B 


'N^N^ 





Fig. 113. 




inside plank IJ inches below, as shown in the figure. 
The plank next to the gauge of rail is notched as shown, 
so that the flanges of the wheels will not be obstructed. 
In order to have the tops of the planks at the proper 



=p 



m 



'^yy^y^^^y^y^ 






Wr^^r-r^Z-^r^.^r^^ ^^W?^ 



Fig. 114. 



elevation, furring must be placed between the ties and 
the planks, the thickness of the furring depending upon 
the weigh, or height, of the rail. 

Instead of the notch shown in Fig. 114, A, the space for 



182 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

the wheel flanges is sometimes obtained by placing an 
old rail on the inside of the track rail, as shown in Fig. 
114, B, and the planks are laid against the base of the 
old rail. 



Article XVI. 
THE WORK TRAIN. 



194. Function of Work Train. — ^The work train is 
used to distribute track material along the line at the 
various points where the material is needed for repairs 
or renewal, particularly ballast, ties, and rails. A work 
train is a necessity on a division handling heavy traffic, 
and is in active service most of the time, except possibly 
in the winter months. If a temporary trestle has been 
built on a new road on account of lack of proper material 
for the fill, the fill to replace the trestle is made by the 
work train and its force. On the older lines, where there 
are no temporary trestles to be filled, one of the principal 
uses made of the work train is in removing rails and ties 
and laying new ones. Where the ties or rails are to be 
replaced at intervals or in short stretches where they have 
become imserviceable, the work train distributes the 
material and the section gang does the laying, but where 
new ties or rails are to be laid for considerable distances, 
all the old ones being removed, it is more economical 
to do the work with the work train force. The above 
remarks apply more particularly to cross-ties, as rails 
are usually renewed in long continuous stretches. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 183 

195. Form of Train. — ^The number and kind of cars 
composing the work train depend partly upon the work 
to be done, and consist in all cases of an engine, caboose, 
and tool car, the balance of the train being made up of 
the cars necessary to handle the material for the particu- 
lar piece of work. Rails are hauled on flat cars with low 
sides and the ties in gondola cars. If the track is being 
ballasted for the first tinle, cars with hoppers in them 
could be used, provided the discharge could be regulated, 
but when the ballast is for renewal purposes, it is hauled 
in gondola, flat, or special cars and deposited on each 
side of the track, as it would not be safe to deposit ballast 
between the rails of a track that is in service. It is ex- 
pensive to distribute ballast from a gondola car, therefore 
in most cases the ballast is hauled on flat cars with movable 
sides, particularly when the haul is short. 

The caboose should be large and furnished with as 
many conveniences as practicable. In most cases they 
are built for the purpose, but sometimes old-fashioned 
passenger coaches are fitted up as cabooses. The seats 
are usually along the sides of the car and arranged with 
lockers underneath in which the men may stow their 
dinner-pails, and there should also be lockers for neces- 
sary supplies and some of the tools. The caboose should 
contain a stove for heating purposes, a water-cooler, 
and a desk for the foreman. The platforms at the ends 
of the caboose should be large and roofed over, and the 
steps and grab-irons conveniently placed, as it is necessary 
for the men to be able to get on and off in the least 
possible time. It is usually provided with a large box 
or locker which is fastened underneath the center of the 



184 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

car, and in which ropes, chains, screw-jacks, snatch- 
blocks, reraihng frogs, etc., are kept. 

196. The Tool Car. — A tool car consists of a flat car 
upon which large tool boxes are fastened. The tools in 
most common use, such as shovels, lining bars, tamping 
bars, etc., are kept in these boxes, which are provided 
with locks. The tool car is often provided with a grab- 
piece and a running-board on each side of the car, and for 
its entire length, so that the men can get aboard quicklj' 
and conveniently. The tool car is coupled just ahead 
of the caboose. The tool car and caboose should be 
attached to the work train at all times, and should carry 
a complete outfit of tools, so that a large force of men 
can be supplied with tools to do any kind of track work 
that may be required, and should also be outfitted for 
ordinary wrecking purposes. 

197. The Engine. — A work train is not heavy and 
must make good time, consequently a passenger loco- 
motive is best for the work train. Old passenger loco- 
motives that are too light or too much worn for service 
on regular trains are generally used, but it is not economi- 
cal to use an engine that is not in fair condition. It is 
necessary to work between regular trains without inter- 
fering with the regular train schedule, and at best a 
great deal of time is lost in getting to a siding until a 
regular train has passed and then back to the working 
point. The work train usually starts from division 
headquarters in the morning and returns at night, and 
if it has a passenger locomotive and is fully equipped 
with air-brakes, it can run on a passenger-train 
schedule and not be compelled to lay over in order 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 185 

to allow passenger trains going in the same direction 
to pass it. 

198. The Work Train Crew. — The work train crew 
consists of the train crew and the work gang. The train 
crew consists of at least four men, viz., the conductor, 
engineer, fireman, and at least one brakeman or flagman. 
Some railroads place both the train crew and the working 
force in charge of one man and call him either conductor 
or foreman, and make him responsible for both running 
the train and handling the men. This is not an eco- 
nomical arrangement, particularly on roads with heavy 
traffic, especially as another flagman is required. The 
best arrangement is to have the train crew in charge 
of a conductor and the work gang in charge of a fore- 
man. The conductor is responsible for the safe running 
of the train, receives and is governed by the orders of the 
train dispatcher, and sees that the train is properly pro- 
tected by the flagman, and runs the train as requested 
by the foreman within the above limits. 

The foreman distributes the materials and handles 
his working force free of all worry about running the train. 
He must keep his men employed as constantly as possible. 
Excepting in special cases, he knows the exact length 
of time he will be able to work uninterruptedly at a 
certain place, and also the length of time the train must 
stay on a siding. In case of a long lay-over, he should, 
if possible, provide work for his men adjacent to the siding; 
if nothing else, they can dress slopes and clean ditches 
and the right-of-way. 

199. The Work Train Force. — The size of the work- 
ing force for the work train depends upon the work to be 



186 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

done. The cost of running the train and wages of the 
train crew are relatively constant, a.nd it is not econom- 
ical to work short-handed. If the train is in constant 
service, a regular force is employed, as much more work 
can be done with an experienced force. If the train 
is not in constant service, it will be necessary to pick 
up inexperienced men when needed, in which case the 
efficiency of the force can be increased by using one or 
more men from the nearest section gang. 

The cost of the work train per day for engine, fuel, 
and wages of train crew is about $30.00; consequently, 
where possible, a large working force should be used, as 
the greater the number of men, the less the proportionate 
expense of the train. 

200. Distributing Ties. — If ties have been delivered 
to the railroad and piled to season at convenient points 
along the division, the work train may be run to the near- 
est supply and ties loaded on the train by the working 
force. It will in many cases, however, be more econom- 
ical to have cars loaded with ties placed on sidings near 
the place where they are to be used, where the work train 
can pick them up. In distributing the ties a great saving 
can be made by placing the ties at the right place. The 
section foreman should make a careful report to thie super- 
visor, stating how many and where the ties are needed. 
This report should be forwarded to the assistant engi- 
neer by the supervisor, and the assistant engineer should 
instruct the foreman of the work train to distribute the 
ties accordingly, or the supervisor or his assistant should 
go with the train and see that the proper distribution 
is made. In many cases the train can be run slowly 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 187 

and the ties distributed while it is moving, care being 
taken not to throw them too far from the track, particu- 
larly on high fills, where they are liable to slide to the 
bottom. Careless work on the part of the train work- 
men will cause a great amount of work and loss of time 
to the section gang, as it will cause a great deal of push- 
car work to get the ties to the right place. The distrib- 
ution may be governed by chalk marks on telegraph 
poles or fences; it would also be well to have the section 
foreman accompany the train. 

201. Handling Rails. — The work train force have 
two problems in handling rails, viz., unloading new rails 
and loading old rails. Rails are usually unloaded by 
dropping them from the side of the car, by sliding them 
off with skids, or by means of derricks. There are also 
several methods and devices for unloading rails by drag- 
ging them from the rear car of the train by means of a drag 
rope and truck, etc. The details of imloading the rails 
depend to a great extent upon the kind of car they are 
loaded on. The rail may be slid to the top of the side 
of the car by means of skids and dropped, or slid by 
means of another set of skids on to the ground or ballast. 
If care is taken that both ends of the rail strike the bal- 
last at the same time, there is very little danger of in- 
juring the rail in either case; but even when skids are 
used, the rail may be ruined by having one end hit the 
groimd considerably before the other. Rails may be un- 
loaded from both sides of the car at the same time, but 
frequently on double-track roads all the rails are un- 
loaded on the inside and allowed to lie between the tracks. 

In loading old rails, the rail is picked up, raised above 



188 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

the side of the car, and thrown broadside into the car. 
It is a dangerous proceeding for inexperienced men, 
but there is practically no danger with experienced men. 
A sufficient number of men to raise the rail at arm's 
length with ease should be used; they stoop over and 
take hold of the head of the rail, straighten up, then 
raise the rail above their heads, step forward, and throw 
it upon the car. An 80-pound rail 33 feet long weighs 
880 pounds; there is not room for more than about 
sixteen men to take hold of it, and each man must lift 
55 pounds. 

202. Handling Ballast. — The handling of the various 
kinds of ballast until it is loaded on the cars at the supply 
points is described in detail in Chapter II, Article II. 
The ballast is then hauled to the division headquarters 
and placed on sidings, and each day the work train takes 
as many cars of ballast as can be distributed during the 
day. Ballast can be handled in three ways, depending 
upon the amount of work to be done, as follows: It 
can be distributed along a long stretch of track and then 
tamped, or it can be distributed along a short distance 
and tamped and then over another short distance, etc., 
all the work being done by the work train force ; or it can be 
distributed by the work train and tamped by the section 
gangs. 

203. Filling a Temporary Trestle. — At least two 
trains are required for each steam shovel when the site 
of a temporary trestle is being filled, and the size of the 
trains, distance hauled, and the method of operation 
should be such that the shovel is in continuous operation 
and one train working all the time that the other train 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 189 

is being loaded. The excavated material is loaded on 
flat cars with sides fastened with hinges, so that the sides 
can be dropped before unloading, or in one of the many 
forms of patented side-dumping cars. The material is 
unloaded from flat cars either by hand or with a plow. 
There are a number of patented plows which in general con- 
sist of a heavy framework which holds a moldboard in a 
diagonal position across the car, and is guided by some 
device on the side of the car opposite to the side from 
which the material is unloaded. In the simplest form 
of plow the moldboard consists of a plank shod with 
boiler-iron and held in position by a triangular frame- 
work. The train is hauled to the fill and fastened by 
brakes or blocks so that it cannot move; the engine is 
cut loose from the train and drags the plow ahead by 
means of a rope. In some cases the plow is built so 
that its point follows the center of the car and throws 
the material both ways. The economy of using a plow 
depends upon the kind of material that is being handled, 
it being cheaper to unload some kinds of material by 
hand. 

204. Wrecking. — When a wreck occurs, it is the duty 
of the employees of the railroad to report it promptly to 
headquarters. The train dispatcher and the wrecking 
crew are notified immediately. The train dispatcher 
takes all precautions necessary to safeguard all trains, 
and t'he wrecking crew and outfit are hurried to the 
scene of accident. In case of accident to a passenger 
train in which persons are injured, a relief train is also 
hurried forward. The wreck train is kept at division 
headquarters and is usually under the charge of the 



190 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

track department or the master mechanic of the shops. 
Each railroad has its own method, depending upon the 
nature of the work hkely to be required. One railroad 
may be so located and constructed that in case of a wreck 
most of the damage will be to rolling stock and the injury 
to the track will be of minor importance. On railroads 
in mountainous country subject to landslides mostof the 
injury may be to the track. In any case it is the duty 
of the wrecking force to get the track in operation as 
soon as possible. 

205. The Wreck Train. — ^Where there is a construc- 
tion train in constant use on a division, and it carries 
the equipment mentioned in ^ 196, the only additional 
outfit necessary is a derrick car and a sufficient supply 
of hydraulic and other heavy jacks. As soon as the shop 
force knows the nature of the wreck, the necessary 
equipment can be obtained from the shops. It is the 
duty of the nearest section gang and the work train to 
proceed to any serious wreck immediately, the wrecking 
crew and train arriving as soon as possible. When there 
is no regular work train, the wreck train must carry all 
the tools and appliances previously mentioned, and are 
usually kept loaded on a car and ready for instant service. 
A telegraphing outfit is also carried, so that reports can be 
made promptly to headquarters, either to report that the 
track is clear or to ask for additional equipment. 

206. The Wrecking Crew. — On most railroads the 
wreck train is in charge of at least two men, a foreman 
and an assistant, who are constantly on duty, and whose 
duty it is to see that the train is ready for service on short 
notice. The wrecking crew is made up of as many ex- 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 191 

perienced men as can be obtained, including shop men. 
On account of the various gangs and crews whose duty 
it is to help clear up a wreck, it is important that there 
shall be a rule defining who shall take charge of the 
wreck, in order to prevent a conflict of authority. The 
wreckage can be handled best by the shop men, and the 
track work by the track department, as both bosses 
and men will be best acquainted with the work in hand. 

Every wreck train should be supplied with a ^' first aid 
to the injured'' outfit, as it may be indispensable in caring 
for those injured* in the wreck or for members of the crew 
injured while engaged in clearing the wreck. All train 
men should be instructed in applying simple remedies, 
and particularly in bandaging woimds, as a compress 
or bandage applied immediately may save life. 

207. Snow-plows. — Excepting in the lower Mississippi 
and Gulf States and portions of the southwest, consid- 
erable trouble is experienced in all parts of the United 
States in keeping the tracks free from snow in winter. 
This problem is so' serious that in some parts of the 
northwestern States snow-sheds and even tunnels are 
built to prevent snow from completely stopping train 
service temporarily. Snow-plows are of three general 
t}^pes, viz., attachments that are placed on the locomo- 
tive, push plows, and especially designed machines. The 
first-mentioned type, attachments to the front of the 
locomotive, is all that is required in a large part of the 
country, but in sections noted for heavy snow-falls the 
machine snow-plow is used. 

When the snow is not deep and is light, an attachment 
to the locomotive pilot is all that is necessary to keep 



192 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

the track clear. There are a number of pilot snow-plows; 
one of the attachments consists of two boiler-plate 
moldboards which are fastened to the sides of the pilot 
so that they present a vertical sharp edge to the snow. 
These moldboards are slightly concave, so that the snow 
slides both ways from the point, which is over the center 
of the track. An arrangement of this kind is only effec- 
tive in keeping the track open, and would be of no use 
in opening a track that has become snow-bound. The 
fight to keep the tracks open should begin as soon 
as the snow begins to fall, particularly -if there are indi- 
cations of a heavy storm. If the above simple device 
can be kept moving during the storm, every train re- 
moves a part of the sno»w, and it will not be possible 
for the snow to block trains ; but if nothing is done until 
the snow has become deep, with the accompanying drift- 
ing and packing that take place, or the storm is so heavy 
that it stalls trains between stations, then the machine 
plows are required to open the road. Snow nearly always 
causes delay, but only in exceptional cases does it com- 
pletely stop heavy traffic. 

208. Push and Machine Plows. — Push snow-plows 
consist of a specially designed car the end of which is so 
shaped that the snow is plowed from the track when the 
plow is pushed along by locomotives. On a single-track 
railroad the plow is shaped so that the snow is thrown 
both ways from the center of the track, but on double- 
track roads it is shaped so that all the snow is thrown 
to the outer side, so that the snow from one track will not 
be thrown on the other track. 

The machine snow-plow in most common use is the 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 193 

^' rotary^' snow-plow. It consists of an especially de- 
signed engine which resembles a freight car to some ex- 
tent, with a vertical revolving wheel on the front end, 
the wheel consisting of blades that are so arranged 
that they cut away the snow, the snow being thrown to 
either side of the track from the top of the case holding 
the rotary cutting wheel. The case or hood is made of 
steel plates, with cutting-edges at the sides and bottom. 
The wheel makes about 200 revolutions per minute, will 
cut through a large drift of packed snow, and will throw 
the snow from 50 to 150 feet from the track, depending 
upon the condition of the snow and the speed. The 
rotary snow-plow will clear the track at the rate of 6 
miles per hour in heavy snow, and 12 to 15 miles per hour 
in light snow. Rotary snow-plows are expensive in first 
cost and operation, and are economical only on -railroads 
where the snow forms drifts of such depth that the simple 
forms of snow-plows will not work. 



Article XVII. 
MISCELLANEOUS. 



209. Bumpers. — Car stops, bumping blocks, or bump- 
ers, are devices to prevent cars from running off the end 
of a track, and are made in a great many forms, varying 
from a bank of earth to an elaborately designed and 
patented device. The first requisite of a bumper is that 
it will stop the car; the secondary one is that the car 
13 



194 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



shall not be injured. Where there is plenty of space for 
it, a bank of earth makes a very effective car stop. The 
bank should be cut to a nearly vertical face, the track 
laid up to this face, and then the excavated earth should 
be replaced so that bank facing the track should have 
a natural earth slope. If a car strikes the slope at 
a reasonable velocity, the wheels cut through the earth 
and encounter an increasing resistance as they get 
further into the bank, and the car will be brought to a 
stop without the wheels leaving the rails. If the car 




Fig. 115. 



is traveling at an excessive rate when it strikes tKe 
bumper, the truck that strikes the bumper may be de- 
railed, but nothing will be broken. 

The design of a bumper depends upon its location, 
the strongest and best forms being used in places where 
the car must be stopped regardless of the damage that 
may be done to the car. This is the case where a track 
ends at the building line of a street, where loss of life 
might result if a car were to run into the street. A 
simple and effective bumper is shown in Fig. 115; it is 
made by turning the ends of the rails up, as shown in Fig. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 195 

115, until they are about 4J feet above the top of rail; 
two pieces of rail are bent so that the parts a b and c d 
are 18 inches long and vertical and horizontal respectively ; 
these pieces are riveted or bolted together at a b and are 
strapped or bolted to the stringer e / at c and g. Both 
rails of the track are arranged as shown in the figure 
and described above, and a 12- by 12-inch timber, A, is 
bolted to the rails transversely to the track with its 
center 3f feet above the top of the rail. 

210, Gauge of Track. — In the early days of railroad- 
ing in the United States a number of different widths 
of gauge were used, and were divided into two general 
classes, viz., broad gauge and narrow gauge. This made 
it necessary to transfer all freight at the j mictions of two 
roads of different gauge, and caused so much delay and 
expense that the same gauge was adopted by all rail- 
roads. This is called ^'standard gauge,'' and is 4 feet 
8^ inches, some railroads using 4 feet 9 inches, and a 
car can be shipped to any railroad point in the United 
States. There are a number of different gauges in use 
in other countries, a broad gauge in common use being 
5 feet, and a narrow gauge which is used extensively is 
1 meter. Narrow-gauge roads are usually built where 
construction is both difficult and expensive, but even 
then it is of doubtful economy. 

211. Widening Gauge on Curves. — On account of 
the length of the wheel-base of large locomotives it is 
customary on some railroads to widen the gauge on 
curves. The gauge of the wheel flanges is made 4 feet 
8| inches, which gives a play of f of an inch on standard 
gauge when the rails and flanges are not worn. The 



196 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

wheel flanges soon become worn, which gives a play of 
more than | of an inch, therefore on curves of a radius 
of 955 feet or more there is no necessity for widening 
the gauge. There is, however, a difference of opinion, 
and some railroads widen the gauge a proportionate 
amount on curves. The New York, Lake Erie, and 
Western Railroad uses the following rule :* 

Degree of Radius in n.^rr,^ Amount of Widen- 



CURVE. 



\U1U» liN nikrrr^v AMOUNT OF \\ lUH: 

Feet. uauge. ^^^ ^^ Inches. 



to 3 to 1910 4 ft. 8i ins. 

3 to 5 1910 to 1146 4 '' 8f '' i 

5 to 7 1146 to 819 4 '' 8| " i 

7 to 9 819 to 637, 4 " 8J " f 

9 to 11 637 to 521 4 '' 9 " I 

212. Clearances. — It is customary for each raihoad 
compaii}^ to issue '^dimension books, ^^ which give the 
size of the largest object that will pass through the 
smallest tunnel, bridge, or opening on the railroad. 
These data are very important to firms that manufacture 
large objects. Where the weight does not prohibit, 
parts of structures are put together in the shops in as 
large portions as possible, the limiting feature being the 
possibility of shipping it to its destination. In many 
cases it has been necessary to ship large objects by 
roundabout routes on account of an old-time small 
opening on the direct route. These dimension books 
give, first, the dimensions governing the size of the object 
that can be shipped over the entire system of the rail- 
road, and, second, those of each division. As soon as 
the smallest of these openings is rebuilt and enlarged, a 
new dimension book is issued. These data are tabulated 

* Standards and Rules, American Railways, Roadmaster and 
Foreman. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 197 

in three columns: First, ''Height above top of rail''; 
second, the corresponding ''width of lading on open 
cars must not exceed''; and, third, the location of this 
limiting point on the railroad. The distances in the 
first column vary by increments of 3 inches. 

213. Track Clearances. — ^The principal clearance 
on double-, or more, track roads is the inter-track dis- 
tance. The longer the car and the sharper the curve, 
the greater the required distance between tracks, fast 
Pullman trains requiring the greatest clearance. The 
distance between centers of tracks is 13 feet inches on 
main line, and 12 feet inches in yards, on the more 
important railroads, although less distances than these 
are in use. 

It is the duty of the section foreman to see that no 
material is piled along the main track at a less distance 
than five feet from the nearest rail, and that it is piled in 
such manner that it cannot fall toward the track. 

The clearances, both side and overhead, of all bridges 
and tunnels are governed by the standards of the rail- 
road, the side clearance seldom being less than 4 feet 2 
inches from gauge of rail, and the headroom less than 
20 feet from the top of rail. 

214. Bridge Warning. — When the clearance is not 
great enough to allow a man to stand on top of a freight 
car without danger of striking the overhead structure, 
22 feet or more above the top of rail, bridge warnings 
are erected. For single-track railroads bridge warnings 
are built about as shown in Fig. 116, which consists of a 
post L M supporting an arm a by means of the brace 
N P and the guy L a. The suspended parts consist 



198 



KAILROAD .TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



Line 



of pieces of rope h c three feet long^ which are suspended 
from the arm a by heavy wires 2^ feet long. The ropes 
are six inches apart and cover a space eight feet wide, 
and project six inches below the level 6 / of the lowest 
part of the overhead structure. The warnings are 
placed about one hundred feet on each side of the struc- 
ture, and the trainman 
must stoop immediately 
after the ropes strike him. 
The suspended ropes are 
designed so that they will 
^-/ hang in place and give cer- 
tain warning without in- 
flicting injury. When there 
are two tracks or more, 
posts are planted outside 
the tracks and an arrange- 
ment similar to the above 
is suspended over each 
track from a wire stretched 
between the posts. 

215. Telegraph Line. — 
A thoroughly maintained 
telegraph line is essential 
to the operation of a rail- 
road. The telegraph line is either built and maintained by 
a company subject to agreement with the railroad, or by 
a special department of the railroad. When the width 
of right-of-way permits, the telegraph poles must be 
placed far enough from the track to prevent obstructing 
the track if blown down in a storm. The maintenance 



P 




/i 

/ Bridge .__ _. 


-mm 

» •" 





Fig. 116. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 199 

of the telegraph Hne is in charge of a foreman and a gang 
of experienced men who make all repairs, trim branches 
of trees so that they cannot strike the wires, and keep 
the line in good working order. 

It is the duty of the section gang to pay strict atten- 
tion to the telegraph wires, make any small repairs 
within their ability, and to report all defects promptly 
to the proper authority. 

Telegraph poles are numbered consecutively by large, 
clear, painted numbers. The numbering is always 
according to some system by which the location of 
the pole is known from the number, and furnishes 
one of the best methods of locating a particular point 
in the track. 

216. Bridge Watchman.* — Bridges should be in- 
spected after the passage of each train, and at shorter 
intervals if trains are too far apart. A supply of water 
must be kept on the bridge, and the watchman should 
follow each train and be prepared to extinguish fire 
promptly. Hot cinders are constantly falling from the 
engine and form a constant source of danger to all frame 
track structures. The piers and abutments should be 
kept clean, and all combustible material removed to a 
safe distance from the bridge. The watchman should 
frequently examine all the timber and ironwork of the 
bridge and report promptly any decay or defect. He 
should also note the speed of passing trains and report 
any violation of the speed limit, and also prevent all 
unauthorized persons from crossing the bridge. When 
the bridge watchman is not occupied with the above 
* Roadmaster and Foreman. 



200 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

duties, he is kept busy at such other duties as the section 
foreman may direct. 

217. Policing. — PoUcing is a term used by railroad 
men to express the keeping of the right-of-way in good 
order, and consists in keeping the grass and weeds cut, 
ditches in good shape, and material piled in the proper 
manner. Section foremen are responsible for keeping 
everything between the right-of-way fences, including 
the fences themselves, in proper shape and condition. 
All old cross-ties taken from the track must be gathered 
daily, if practicable, and piled or disposed of in such 
manner as directed by the supervisor, and may be used 
for fence-posts, firewood, or burned, depending upon 
their condition. All old bolts, nuts, spikes, and similar 
material dropping from cars should be collected and re- 
moved to the tool house. 

After grass and weeds have been cut they should be 
raked together and burned. Whenever fires occur on 
the tracks or adjoining grounds, they must be promptly 
extinguished, and if caused by a locomotive, the number 
of the train must be reported to the supervisor. 

To sum up, the foreman must see that everything on 
his section is up to regulations, in good condition, and 
presents a neat appearance. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 201 

Article XVIII. 
TRACK INSPECTION. 

218. The Supervisor. — ^The duties of the supervisor, 
or roadmaster, may be divided into two classes, viz., 
office and inspection work. The office work to a great 
extent consists of details of a recurring nature, and there 
should be an experienced office force to handle them. 
The office force should be in charge of an experienced 
clerk, thoroughly familiar with all the details of the 
track work of a subdivision, and the routine office work 
should be handled in such a manner that the supervisor, 
while thoroughly familiar with what is taking place in the 
office, should be compelled to give personal attention only 
to the larger and more important matters, and the facts 
in these should be prepared by the office force in such 
a manner that the supervisor can dispose of them intel- 
ligently in the shortest possible time. This arrangement 
will allow the supervisor to be out on his subdivision 
the greater part of the time, and give him the opportun- 
ity to keep thoroughly posted as to the condition of his 
subdivision by actual observation. There is no uni- 
versal rule governing the actual number of times the 
supervisor must inspect his division, except that he 
must get over his division often enough to be thoroughly 
familiar with the condition of all parts of it at all times. 

219. Inspection by the Supervisor. — The super- 
visor may obtain data as to the condition of the track by 
riding on the engine of a fast train, by riding on the rear 



202 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

car of a train, and by walking over the line. It is neces- 
sary to inspect in all three of these ways in order to get 
the best results. 

The most important method of inspection is by walk- 
ing over the line, the section foreman accompanying the 
supervisor over his own section. This gives the super- 
visor a chance to become thoroughly familiar with every 
foot of the track, to become thoroughly acquainted with 
the foreman and familiar with his method of work. It 
also gives opportunity to give detail instruction to the 
foreman and to make any necessary changes in his 
methods, with the result that the amount of work done 
will be increased and the grade of the work will be im- 
proved. 

When the track has been inspected and defects rem- 
edied as far as can be seen, it is customary for the super- 
visor to make a trip over his division on the engine of 
a fast passenger train, the degree of smoothness with 
which the engine rides being the principal test as to the 
condition of the track. The location and probable 
nature of a defect are noted, and steps taken to remedy 
the defect. 

Inspecting the track from the rear car of a train is the 
easiest method, and is the best way to form an idea of 
the general appearance of the right-of-way and to make 
a casual inspection, but care must be taken that too 
much dependence is not placed in this method on ac- 
count of the ease with which it can be done. If there is 
not time to walk over the line, it is better to make the 
trip on a track velocipede. The more walking done by 
the supervisor, the better the discipline and work of the 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 203 

section gangs, particularly if the men do not know just 
when he will be along. All workmen keep their eye on 
the ^^boss/^ and the more they see him, the better they 
will work. 

220. Details of Inspection. — '' Roadmaster and Fore- 
man'' divide track inspection into five classes and ten 
parts as follows : 

Class A: 1, Alinement. 

2, Surface. 

Class B : 3, Joints. 

4, Spikes. 

Class C : 5, Switches. 

6, Frogs. 

Class D : 7, Ballast. 

8, Sleepers. 

Class E ; 9, Ditches. 

10, Cleanliness. 

221. Alinement and Surface. — On tangents the rails 
should lie in perfectly straight lines as projected on a 
horizontal plane, or sighted by a plumb line, and sym- 
metrically located with respect to the center line markers; 
and on curves the rails should be concentric with the 
curve indicated by the center line markers and sym- 

. metrically placed with respect to the markers. Fore- 
men have no trouble in alining track on tangent and a 
uniform grade, but they must pay strict attention to the 
center line markers both in hollows and on humps where 
the grade breaks. At the P. C. and P. T. of a simple 
curve trackmen almost invariably and unconsciously 
form a short transition curve in endeavoring to prevent 



204 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

the change from tangent to curve or vice versa from ap- 
pearing abrupt; nothing but a well-marked center line 
will prevent this from becoming excessive. 

Track is said to be in true surface when the top of the 
rail forms a straight line on tangents when projected on a 
vertical plane, and has the proper curvature on ease- 
ment curves, and when the corresponding point on the 
companion rail of the track has the same elevation 
on tangent, or the proper difference of elevation on 
curves. 

222. Joints and Spikes. — For ''broken joints'' the 
joint on one rail should be nearly opposite the middle of 
the companion rail of the track, and for ''square joints,'' 
the joints should be nearly opposite each other. The 
splice-bars, rails, and bolts should be kept screwed up so 
that the joint can be kept in alinement and surface the 
same as the rest of the track; and the proper space should 
be maintained between the ends of rails so that the track 
will neither be pushed out of line in hot weather nor 
leave a space that will cause the joint to be pounded out 
of surface in cold weather. 

At least one spike is required on ^ach side of the rail 
on every tie, and joints should be double spiked. Spikes 
should hold the rail firmly against the tie and should be 
kept driven down so that no movement between the tie- 
and rail can occur. If the spikes become loose, addi- 
tional spikes should be driven. 

223. Switches and Frogs. — Switches should receive 
constant attention, and all parts kept in proper con- 
dition and adjustment. The headblocks should be 
tamped firm, the switch stand in thorough working Qon- 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 205 

dition, and the target painted. Damaged parts should 
be replaced before they cause injury to adjacent parts. 

Frogs are the most costly and most vulnerable part of 
a switch, and must be made to last as long as possible, but 
must be replaced as soon as they are unfit for the service 
required; this does not mean that they are totally un- 
fit for use, as a frog that is unfit for main track may be 
plenty good enough for yard use, where it will not have 
to stand much service. 

224. Ballast, Sleepers, Ditches, and Cleanliness. — 
Ballast, ditches, and cleanliness, or policing, have been 
discussed in previous articles. Sleepers, or ties, are 
spaced and lined according to the rules of the individ- 
ual railroad. It is claimed that they will wear best if 
sorted and laid in uniform sizes. Decayed and badly 
cut ties should be promptly removed. Even where ties 
are of uniform size and apparently similar in all respects, 
some will wear out considerably before others even when 
laid in the same stretch of track. 

225. General Inspection. — It is customary, partic- 
ularly on Eastern railroads, to have an ^^ annual inspec- 
tion,^' when the principal officers of the road inspect the 
entire system. Prizes are awarded to the division, sub- 
division, and section having the best track, attention 
being paid to all the principal points in If 220. Efforts 
are made by every supervisor and foreman to have the 
best piece of track, the winners not only receiving a cash 
prize, but a far greater benefit from the increased chances 
of promotion. 



CHAPTER VI. 
RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 



Article XIX. 
THE ENGINEER CORPS. 

226. The Preliminary and Location Corps. — On pre- 
liminary and location the field engineer corps is com- 
posed of three parties, viz., the transit, level, and topog- 
raphy party, all in charge of the assistant engineer. 
The transit party consists of the transitman, head-chain- 
man, back- (or rear-) chainman, one or more axemen, 
and the back-flagman. The level party consists of the 
levelman and level-rodman ; and the topography party 
consists of the topographer and two tapemen. The 
duties of each of these men are described in the ^^ En- 
gineer's Fieldbook,'' and it is not necessary to repeat 
them here. The relative rank of the members of the 
party is well established for all but the topographer, and, 
'eaving out the topographer, they rank in the following 
order: (1) assistant engineer: (2) transitman; (3) level- 
man; the balance of the party having no regular order 
of seniority, on special occasions they being placed in 
charge of any part of the work, depending upon their 

206 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 207 

ability and their assignment by the assistant engineer. 
The relative rank of the topographer depends upon the 
notions of the chief engineer. By some chief engineers 
the topographer is made practically independent of the 
rest of the field corps and reports directly to the office, 
and in other instances may rank anywhere from just 
below the assistant engineer to junior to the levelman. 
In all well-regulated field corps, in addition to the as- 
sistant engineer, the transitman, levelman, and topog- 
rapher should be theoretically trained engineers; and 
in many cases the head-chainman and level-rodman are 
young graduates, thus giving a party tlmt will never be 
at a loss for instrument-men. 

227. Referencing the Final Location. — After all 
necessary lines have been run, topography taken, the 
line adjusted in every detail, the line that is shown to be 
the best possible through the territory in question is 
adopted and called the final location, the line being re- 
run to take out all equations and give continuous sta- 
tions. The last field work to be done by the location 
party is to thoroughly reference all the principal huhs^ or 
transit points, on the line. This is necessary in order to 
relocate the line in either of the two following cases: 

(1) in case construction should not follow immediately 
after location, and the line be partly obliterated; or 

(2) in order to replace the line when part of it has 
been dug up or covered over in the course of construc- 
tion. 

In some cases it requires considerable ingenuity on the 
part of the instrument-man to reference a point so that 
the point may be relocated. In Fig. 117 is shown one 



208 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



of the most complete methods of referencing a point, the 
point being the P. C. sta. 121 + 11.1, the hne running in 
the direction indicated by the arrow. The Unes A B and 
D C should cross each other at an angle as near 90 
degrees as possible, which gives the most definite inter- 
section. The points A, B, C, and D must be placed so 
that they are in no danger of being knocked out, so that 
the transit can be set up over at least one point on each 
line, and also so that they can be readily found, properly 



"^ 



^-%' 



p.c.Wj 



s?' 



^ W.Oak 



TT'b" 



<«x' 



4^ 

121 -f 11.1 



4) 



Fig. 117. 







P.T. (Jrui + 19.2 



Pine 



%< 1 

Maple 

Fig. 118. 



marked guard stakes oemg set near them, and notches 
cut in the fence. The bearings and distances are taken, 
as they may aid considerably in relocating a point, 
particularly if the survey is old. 

228. To Relocate a Point. — Suppose we have the 
notes and sketch in Fig. 117 and the point 121 + 11.1 
has been destroyed; the general method of relocating it 
would be as follows: By means of the sketch and data 
the points A, B, C, and D are located; set the transit 
up over B, sight to A, and place stakes and tacks at E and 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 209 

F on each side of the Hne D C, then set up at C and sight 
to D, locating the point where the Hne of sight C D 
crosses a string stretched between E and F; this inter- 
section will be the required point 121 + 11.1. 

Another method of referencing is shown in Fig. 118. 
One of the most important points to keep in mind in all 
work of this kind is to take notes as complete as possible. 
It only takes a few minutes' additional time to read the 
magnetic bearings and make a complete sketch, but poor 
notes may cause the loss of a much greater length of 
time in relocating. 

229. Slope-stakes and Cross-sections. — Slope-stakes 
are stakes set at the points where the slopes of the cut 
or fill cut the original ground surface. Cross-sections 
record the differences of elevation of the ground surface 
at corresponding distances out from the center line and 
normal to the center line. If the cross-sections are 
taken in order to determine the difference in the amounts 
of cut and fill in a proposed shift of the line, the length of 
the cross-section is determined by the distance the line 
may be shifted. If the line is finally located, the slope- 
stakes may be set and the cross-section taken at the 
same time, and if the slopes are uniform from the center 
stake to each of the slope-stakes, no intermediate cross- 
section notes are necessary in order to plot the cross- 
section. In table XVIII is shown a convenient method 
of keeping slope-stake and cross-section notes in a 
transit book. The cross-section notes should be plotted 
in a cross-section book made of cross-section paper, with 
ten divisions to the inch. In Fig. 119 is shown the cross- 
section of sta. 183 as it appears in the cross-section book. 
14 



210 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



The areas and volumes are also recorded in the cross- 
section book, with the corresponding cross-sections. 

TABLE XVIII. 



St A. 


Q 

O 
O 


Grade 


End 
Areas, 
Sq. Ft. 


Cut, 
Cu. 

Yds. 


Fill, 
Cu. 
Yds. 


183 


388.5 


381.8 


173.8 


488.5 




182 


387.4 


381.3 


90.0 







+ 5.7 +6.1 +6.7 +7.8 +8.6 
14.7 9.0 

+ 2.0 



11.9 



+ 6.1 



9.0 17.6 

+6.1 
15.1 



The explanation of the method of setting slope-stakes 
and taking cross-sections will be found in detail in all 
railroad engineers^ handbooks. 







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fi 1 




















































4 


V. 


8 












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— 


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9. 





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— 


9.10"^ 






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Fig. 119. 

230. The Residency. — The line to be built is divided 
into sections from about six to twelve miles in length, 
depending upon whether the work is heavy or light, and 
these sections are called residencies. The name probably 
comes from the fact that each of the sections is in charge 
of a corps of engineers who reside on the work. The 
resident corps, commonly called residency party , con- 
sists of three or more men, the chief of whom is uni- 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 211 

versally called the resident engineer; the titles of the 
balance of the party are, however, subject to consider- 
able variation, as shown in the following arrangement of 
parties : 

Resident Engineer Resident Engineer Resident Engineer 
Transitman Assistant Engineer Instrument-man 

Levelman Rodman Axeman 

Rodman Axeman 

The size of the party depends upon the nature of the 
work and the custom of the railroad, but they all agree 
in having at least two men who can handle instruments. 
In addition to the above members, an inspector is added 
when there is masonry of importance to be built. 

The residency headquarters should be on the line, and 
where accommodations cannot otherwise be obtained, a 
camp, more or less temporary in construction, must be 
maintained. The headquarters should not only con- 
tain living quarters for the engineers, but also a com- 
plete office outfit. 

Other things being equal, the residency headquarters 
should be located near the center of the residency, so 
that all parts of the work may be reached in the shortest 
possible time; but in some cases it will be more con- 
venient to locate it at one end of the residency, in order 
to be more accessible from division headquarters. 

231. Duties of the Residency Party. — As soon as 
the residency party is appointed and located it must 
secure complete notes of the survey of their part of the 
line, including a copy of the transit and level notes, and 
the map. There should be a copy of the profile for each 



212 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

instrument-man and one for the office. The Hne must 
be referenced as described in T[ 227 before any grading is 
done. The referencing is usually done by the location 
party, but it may be necessary for the residency party to 
reference additional points. 

After the residency headquarters is fixed up and the 
copy of the necessary data obtained, the first work of the 
party is the setting of slope-stakes. Slope-stakes are 
necessary before any excavation work can be done. As 
the first duty of the contractor is to clear and grub the 
right-of-way, it is usually possible to set the slope-stakes 
on the parts of the line that are comparatively clear, and 
slope-stake the balance of the line after the clearing and 
grubbing have been finished. 

232. Situation Plans. — Plans for all openings larger 
than a box culvert, where masonry is to be used, are 
usually worked up at division headquarters. In order 
to supply the necessary data for this purpose the resi- 
dency party must, as soon as practicable, make up 
situation plans and forward them to headquarters. If, 
for instance, a situation plan is to be made for a bridge 
over a stream, a topographical map of the ground and 
stream covered by the bridge abutments and piers is 
drawn to a scale of 20 feet to 1 inch, showing the eleva- 
tion of the banks and of the bottom of the stream by 
one-foot contours, and also the depth to solid rock at 
points where piers and abutments are to be built. If 
the bridge is too long to show to this scale, a plan show- 
ing the general outline and data may be drawn to a 
scale of 50 or 100 feet to 1 inch, and a situation plan 
made for the site of each abutment and pier to the scale 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 213 

of 20 or possibly 10 feet to 1 inch. With the aid of the 
situation plan the detail plans for the construction of the 
masonry can be drawn. These plans are sent to the 
resident engineer, who stakes them out, and through his 
inspector supervises the work. 

233. Monthly Estimates. — It is the duty of the 
residency party to furnish monthly estimates of the work 
completed at the time of taking the estimate. The 
measurements are made as close to the end of the month 
as possible, and must be forwarded to division head- 
quarters not later than the last day of the month. In 
order to furnish these estimates cross-sections must be 



-fs.r +M 




rxm over all the line where work is in progress. After 
the slope-stakes are set the notes are plotted in the book 
especially designed for the purpose (1[ 229) . When the 
monthly cross-sections are taken, they are plotted over 
the original section at that point, and the area of the 
excavated shaded portion in Fig. 120 is determined, and 
from these areas the total amount excavated is com- 
puted. The portion of the line where embankments are 
being made is measured and plotted in the same way. 
The last estimate, minus the previous monthly estimate, 
gives the number of cubic yards of material excavated or 
filled during the month, and forms the basis upon which 



214 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

a part payment, 85 or 90 per cent., is made to the con- 
tractor. Monthly estimates are made on all work done 
by the contractor — clearing and grubbing, excavation, 
masonry, trestling completed, and borrow. Overhaul 
is usually left until a portion of the line is com- 
pleted. 

234. Progress Profiles. — As soon as the monthly 
estimates are finished, the residency party plots up two 
progress profiles, one for their own information and one 
for division headquarters, the latter being sent back and 
forth for the purpose. The general idea of a progress 
profile is shown in Fig. 121. The portion A excavated 




Fig. 121. 

in the first month is deposited in the embankments A', 
for the second month from B to B', and so on, until the 
cut is finished. Information as to the state of com- 
pleteness of all other work, such as culverts, etc., is also 
placed on the progress profile. The progress profile 
enables the engineer to judge whether or not the work is 
being pushed at a rate that will finish it within the 
specified time. If it shows the contractor to be too slow 
in his method of working, the contractor is ordered to 
put on more force. The work done in each month is 
shown by tinting that portion of the profile with a color 
corresponding to the month ; as, for example, the follow- 
ing: 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 215 

January Cobalt Blue 

February Vermilion 

March Chrome Yellow 

April Venetian Red 

May Sepia 

June Olive Green 

July Van Dyke Brown 

August Antwerp Blue 

. September. Chrome Orange 

October Payne's Gray 

November Scarlet Lake 

December Burnt Sienna 

The progress profile gives the quickest and surest waj^ 
of estimating the condition of the work at any particular 
time. 



Article XX. 
CUTS AND FILLS. 



235. Definitions. — Cut, or excavation, is the term 
applied to the material above the grade line G L, Fig. 
121, which must be removed in order to form the road- 
bed of the railroad. 

Fillj or embankment, is the term applied to the mate- 
rial that must be deposited in the hollows below the grade 
line in order to form the roadbed, or subgrade. 

When the material is excavated from the cut, it is 
carried each way from the center of the cut and deposited 
in the adjacent fills. When the cut is not sufficient to 
complete the fills, it is necessary to obtain additional 
material for the purpose, and this additional material is 
called borrow. If the cuts should give more material 



216 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

than is required to complete the fills, the excess material 
is called waste. 

The line G L, Fig. 121, drawn on the profile represent- 
ing the elevation and longitudinal slope of the finished 
roadbed, is called the^rade^ or gradient, grade being used 
in the United States and gradient in England. The 
grade line is drawn at the elevation of the base of rail. 
Grades are expressed in percentage of rise and fall; if 
a grade rises 0.3 foot in 100 feet, it is called a + 0.3 
per cent, grade, and if it falls 0.5 foot in 100 feet, it is 
called a — 0.5 per cent, grade. 

The subgrade is the top of the foundation upon which 
the ballast rests, and is the surface represented on the 
profile by a line parallel to and a certain distance below 
the grade line. The distance between the grade and the 
subgrade is governed by the depth of ballast that is to 
be used, and may vary from 7 inches, the thickness of a 
tie, to 2 feet, the greatest depth of ballast that is likely 
to be used; this distance between the grade and the 
subgrade must be decided before any construction work 
is done. The main duty of the residency engineers is to 
see that the excavations and embankments are made in 
the proper manner and finished to the proper surface, 
together with all masonry, etc., necessary thereto, and 
to furnish an accurate estimate of the quantities and 
cost. 

236. Classification. — Contracts for the completion 
of the subgrade are let in three ways, viz., (1) without 
classification; (2) with classification; and (3) by force 
account. In a minority of cases work is let without 
classification. This consists in agreeing on a fixed price 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 217 

per cubic yard of excavation for all the excavation on the 
line, no variation in price being made for different kinds 
of material. The contractor goes over the line, exam- 
ines the material, and with the aid of a profile that is 
furnished him estimates the average price at which he 
can complete the work at a profit and at the same time 
bid lower than competing contractors. A very small 
percentage of railroad work has been done in this way, 
owing to the great uncertainty and chance of loss, but 
with improved excavating machinery and outfit it is 
probable that a greater percentage of railroad work will 
be done in this way in the future, particularly where 
the new line lies near other work that has been com- 
pleted and a fairly accurate estimate of the cost can be 
made. 

When work is let with classification, it is divided into 
three and sometimes four classes, viz., earth, loose rock, 
and solid rock, or earth, hardpan, loose rock, and solid 
rock, the contractor agreeing to do each class of excava- 
tion at a specified price per cubic yard, the amount of 
each class of material being measured as it is excavated. 

237. Earth. — Each railroad has its own arbitrary 
rules for dividing the excavated material into the differ- 
ent classes, and the classification on some railroads 
varies materially from the classification on other rail- 
roads, but this causes no hardship to the contractor be- 
cause he is furnished a copy of the specifications before 
bidding. 

Earth includes loam, clay, sand, gravel, decomposed 
rock and slate, and boulders not greater than one cubic 
foot. Earth is often defined as ^^anv material that can 



218 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCITON. 

be plowed by a two-horse plow and scraped/^ some rail- 
roads specifying a four-horse plow. 

The principal operations in excavating earth are 
loosening, loading, hauling, and spreading. In addition 
to the men, teams, and implements necessary to do this, 
there are expenses due to keeping the roadway over 
which the material is hauled in repair, repairs to im- 
plements, etc., and superintendence. In ordinary earthy 
materials, if the fills are not too long, the cheapest method 
is to use plows to loosen the material, and drag- or 
wheel-scrapers to carry and spread it. The most ex- 
pensive method is loading the material into wagons by 
hand and hauling it into the fills; this method is neces- 
sary when the haul is long. 

Earth excavation usually costs from 15 to 20 cents 
per cubic yard. The cost of all excavation depends 
upon the amount of work to be done, because the first 
cost of the necessary outfit, or even of moving the out- 
fit to the job, will be less in proportion the greater the 
amount of work to be done. 

238. Hardpan. — Hardpan has been defined as "the 
more or less firmly consolidated detrital material which 
sometimes underlies a superficial covering of soil,^^ and 
also as "any bed of mingled clay and sand or pebbles, 
if firmly compacted.'^ It sometimes closely resembles 
conglomerate rock in general appearance. When mate- 
rial of this formation can be plowed with a four-horse 
plow, it is usually classed as earth ; but when it cannot 
be plowed, it is classed either as hardpan or as loose 
rock, depending upon the specifications. 

239. Loose Rock. — "Loose rock shall include shale, 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 219 

slate, coal, soft friable sandstone, cemented gravel, or 
conglomerate rock; stratified limestone in layers of six 
inches or less, separated by strata of clay; masses of 
boulders or detached rocks, free from earth, in which the 
average size of the boulders or detached rocks is not less 
than one cubic foot, nor more than one cubic yard; and 
masses of earth mixed with loose stone and boulders of 
one cubic foot or more average size, wherein the propor- 
tion of rock to the whole mass is more than one-haK/' 
The railroad that has the above specification does not 
have hardpan in its specifications, but the hardpan is 
covered by the phrase ^^ cemented gravel/' 

240. Solid Rock. — Two specifications for solid rock 
are as follows: ^^ Solid rock will include all rock in place, 
which rings under the hammer, in masses of more than 
one cubic yard, with the exception of stratified limestone 
described in the specifications for loose rock/' And, 
'^ solid rock shall include all rock occurring in masses 
which, in the judgment of the engineer, may be best 
removed by blasting/' It is very difficult to write a 
specification for solid rock which will fit all parts of a 
line without variation. In the first specification the 
clause ^' rings under the hammer" is very severe, and in 
the second specification the phrase ^^may be best re- 
moved by blasting" should never be used, as a judicious 
use of powder may assist materially in excavating any 
material, even some forms of earth. To classify rock 
equitably requires sound judgment on the part of the 
engineer, and is a pregnant cause of dispute between the 
engineer and the contractor. 

Earth, loose rock, and solid rock are often found in the 



220 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

same cut, and the residency party is kept busy running 
cross-sections and resetting slope-stakes. In this case 
the cross-section of the finished cut will be as in Fig. 122, 
the slopes A E and B F being 1 on 1, or 1 on 1^, and 
G K and H L 4 on 1, depending upon the material. 
First, the slope-stakes A and B are set, the earth is 
cleared off to the loose rock C D, and the cross-section 
C D is run and the amount of earth computed; then the 
loose rock is removed down to the solid rock E F, the 
cross-section E F run, and the amount of loose rock 
computed; then the slope-stakes G and H are set, and 




the solid rock excavated and computed. The berms 
E G and H F should be at least four feet wide. 

241. Fills or Embankments. — Other things being 
equal, the grade is so placed on the profile that the cuts 
and fills balance, or just enough material is excavated to 
make the embankments. It is obligatory on the part of 
the contractor to excavate the cuts at the contracted 
price per cubic yard and haul the excavated material 
and make the fill without additional charge, provided the 
haul is not greater than a specified distance. The con- 
tractor must also place the material in the fill in the 
specified manner. This may be specified in any one of a 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 221 

number of ways, viz., spread the earth in layers and 
drivfe over it as much as possible, thus compacting it. 
Usually the contractor is allowed to dump the material 
into the fill in the manner most economical to him, pro- 
vided, of course, there is no good reason to the contrary, 
and then add additional material, if necessary, after the 
emibankment has settled. 

242. Borrow and Waste. — As stated in ^ 235, borrow 
is the term applied to the material necessary to finish 
the fill when the cut is insufficient. If there is rock in 
the excavations, it is usually more economical to borrow 
to make the fills, than it is to lower the grade line so that 
the cuts and fills will balance, particularly if earth borrow 
is convenient. As the contractor is paid only for ex- 
cavation, there should be no waste except where ab- 
solutely unavoidable. Waste may be necessary in order 
to get the required grade and alinement over the line as 
a whole. Waste is usually deposited along the side of a 
fill, so that later it may be used for an additional track. 

243. Borrow Pits. — A borrow pit is the hole from 
which borrow has been taken ; it is staked out by the 
engineer and cross-sections taken over the ground be- 
fore any borrow is taken out. The contractor is required 
to leave the pit as symmetrical as possible, so that its 
measurement will be simplified, and is paid for the num- 
ber of cubic yards removed. In case of leaving an ir- 
regularly shaped hole difficult to measure, if the engineer 
so decides, the contractor may be compelled to accept 
the yardage found in the fill after settlement, thus losing 
the amount of shrinkage. If the cuts adjacent to the 
fill are earth, it may be specified that the borrow shall be 



222 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



made from the cuts, the additional width being used 
later for an additional track. Borrow pits, Fig. 123, are 
always located as near the embankment as possible to 
save haul; where they run parallel to the embankment, 
the top of the slope of the borrow pit B should ijot come 
closer to the toe of slope of the embankment A than 10 
or 12 feet, and if the embankment is likely to be widened 
for another track, the berm A B should be wide enough 
to leave the 10 or 12 feet after the embankment has been 
widened. 
244. Shrinkage. — When earth is excavated and 

dumped loosely, it makes, 
while in the loose state, a 
greater bulk than it occu- 
pied before excavation. 
But after it has settled and 
compacted it makes a less 
bulk, usually, than it occu- 
pied before excavation; 
this is termed shrinkage. Different earthy materials shrink 
by different amoimts ; some materials will make as much 
fill as they originally occupied, but on the average earth 
is considered to shrink 10 per cent. The length of time it 
takes earth to shrink the full amount (to a stable volume) 
depends principally upon the amount of compacting it 
gets while being placed in the fill and the amount of water 
that gets into it while in a loose state. When embank- 
ments are made by dumping in loose material, they are 
usually made high enough to allow them to shrink the 
full amount and still be on grade, Fig. 124. The work 
is not accepted and measured by the engineer until, in 




/ 


\ 


B 


y 



Fig. 123. 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 223 

his judgment, it has become sohd. The railroad com- 
pany is on the safe side in this matter, as the 10 or 15 
per cent, of the estimate which is held back is not paid 
imtil the entire road is completed, and by that time all 
the fills have had sufficient time and rain to become solid. 
245. Swell of Rock. — Solid rock when excavated and 
placed in a fill always increases in volume; the amount 
of increase of volume, or swell, depending upon the sizes 
into which it is broken. If stone is broken into small 
pieces of uniform size, the broken stone may contain as 
high as 50 per cent, of voids, or the original solid rock 
would make double the amount when placed in the fill. 




Fig. 124. 



If the pieces vary in size, the percentage of voids will be 
less, so it seems reasonable to assume that solid rock will 
swell 50 per cent. It is very difficult in some cases to 
estimate the amoimt of fill a rock cut will make, particu- 
larly a side hill cut along a stream. The contractor is 
paid to make the excavation, and his endeavor is to get 
the material out of the cut in the quickest and easiest wa)^, 
and it takes eternal vigilance on the part of the resident 
engineer to keep the contractor from blowing a large 
portion of the material into the stream by the use of ex- 
cessive charges of powder. In some cases the contractor 
will deliberately blow the material away and make good 



224 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



the deficiency in the fill by borrow at his own expense, 
provided, of course, the engineer compels him to replace 
the wasted material. 

246. Sections. — Before the work is let to the con- 
tractors, in fact, when the cost of the line is estimated, 
the line is divided into sections about one mile long, but 
they sometimes vary in length from 4000 to 7000 feet. 
The sections are so placed that, as far as possible, the cuts 
w^ill balance the fills. Fig. 125 shows section 4; every 
yard of excavation between the section posts should go 
into the fills in this section. The profile which is given 
the contractor when he goes over the line to get data 
upon which to base his bid has these sections marked on 




At. 



Fig. 125. 



it, together with the probable quantities, so that he can 
estimate the amount of overhaul, if any, and the number 
of teams, etc., required; he then bids for the work in 
certain sections. Although there is always a clause in 
the contract allowing the chief engineer to make changes 
in the plans at any time, it would cause trouble to change 
section limits after the contract has been let, if the con- 
tractor thought ^^he was being ruined'' by the change, as 
he is very liable to claim. 

247. Overhaul. — It is always stipulated in the con- 
tract that the excavated material shall be hauled a 
certain distance without extra charge; this distance. 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 225 

called free-haulj is usually 500 feet^ but in some cases it is 
greater. Assuming the free-haul to be 500 feet, when the 
material must be hauled more than 500 feet, the excess 
of distance over 500 feet is called overhaul^ and is paid for 
at the rate of one or one and one-half cents per cubic 
3^ard per 100 feet of overhaul, in addition to the con- 
tracted price per cubic yard for excavation. 

There are two methods of computing .the distance 
and amount of overhaul, both of which are in general 
use. In Fig. 126 the excavation B F is to be placed in 
the embankment B C ; let g and g^ be the centers of grav- 
ity of the volumes F D and E C respectively, and let 
them be projected on the grade line at G and G'. The 



9 


^\b 


E 


G' 


o 


f 


G I 


Fig 126. 


! 


1 
'9' 






first method is to excavate the part B D and make the 
fill B E so that the distance D E equals the free-haul. 
Then the mass F D is hauled to E C, and the distance of 
overhaul will be G G' — D E, and the amount of the 
overhaul will be the product of the volume F D, the 
distance of overhaul and the price of the overhaul per 
yard per himdred feet. For example, if the volume of 
F D is 800 cubic yards, the distance of overhaul 320 feet, 
and the rate one cent per yard, then the cost of the over- 
haul will be 

800 X 3.20 X .01 = $25.60. 

In the second method the cut B F, Fig. 127, is hauled 
15 



226 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

into the fill B C, and g and g^ are the centers of gravity 
of the cut and fill respectively; then the overhaul is 
G G' — 500 and this is applied to the entire volume B F. 
This method, in the example which follows in ^ 250, is 
not so favorable to the contractor as the first method. 

Overhaul is computed for each fill, and overhaul in 
one fill is not counterbalanced by a short haul in another 
fill, even if both fills are in the same section. 

248. Method of Computing Overhaul. — While it is 
not necessary to determine the centers of gravity, with 
extreme precision, in general, it will not be sufficiently 
accurate to take the centers of gravity of the plane figures 



Fig, 127. 

shown in Figs. 126 and 127 as the centers of gravity of the 
volumes represented, on account of the volumes increas- 
ing more rapidly then the first power of the height of 
the cut or fill. The center of gravity is usually com- 
puted by the algebraic method, or by moments. 

Only the total volume of a cut or fill is written on the 
profile, but in the cross-section book the volumes be- 
tween the adjacent cross-sections are recorded. These 
sections are never more than 100 feet apart, and are less 
than 100 feet apart if the ground is rough, so the total 
volume of a cut or fill is divided into a number of small 
volumes, or prismoids. In most cases there will be no 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 



227 



appreciable error in the final result if the center of grav- 
ity of each of the prismoids is considered to be half-way 
between its end sections. In order to compute the 
center of gravity of the cut (or fill), assume some point 
as B, Fig. 127; then the sum of the products of each 
small volume by the distance of its center of gravity 
from B in feet, divided by the total volume B F, will give 
the distance B G in feet. In the same way B G' is com- 
puted, and then the total distance between the centers 











n' 


/ 




1 

1 

l__ 




— ^ 


f' 












L 


/ 


/ 


1 




1 

1 


h^ 






K 


M 








A 


600 


D" 






1 

1 




. 






\ 












F 




500 


300 


\ 


1 






















"~~DJ 

t 

b 




150 


1 


,20 
vl60 


E 


500 


530 


C 

700 




J±_ 
















1 




1 


o 









Fig. 128. 



of gravity is G G' = B G + B G', and the distance of 
overhaul is G G' minus the free-haul. 

249. The Mass Diagram. — The amount of overhaul 
may be computed graphically by means of the mass 
diagram shown in Fig. 128. The line A B H represents 
the profile of the portion of the line between stations 30 
and 40, F C the grade line, and B, sta. 34 + 70.0, the 
point of zero cut and fill. The portion of the cut to the 
left of sta. 30 is carried to the left, and all the cut to the 



228 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



right of sta. 30 goes to make the fill B C H. In order to 
construct the mass diagram a table similar to table XIX 
is compiled. The volumes of the prismoids in the second 
and third columns are taken from the cross-section book; 
the quantities in the fourth column are obtained by- 
adding the quantities in the second and third columns 
algebraically, cuts being considered positive and fills 
negative. The quantities in the second and third col- 
umns are also written on the profile in the parts cor- 
responding to the respective prismoids, 600 being the 
number of cubic yards between stas. 30 and 31, etc. 

TABLE XIX. 



Sta. 


Cut, 
Cu. Yds. 


Fill, 
Cu. Yds. 


Ordinate, 
Cu. Yds. 


30 

31 



600 
500 
300 
150 
50 


*20 
150 
400 
500 
530 
700 



+ 600 


32 


+ 1100 


33 


+ 1400 


34 

34 + 70 


+ 1550 
+ 1600 


35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 


+ 1580 
+ 1430 
+ 1030 
+ 530 

— 700 







To construct the mass diagram L D' N E' M draw the 
indefinite horizontal line L M, and on the ordinate 
through each station plot the corresponding value from 
the fourth column of table XIX to any convenient 
scale, and connect the upper ends of the ordinates by 
the line L D' N E' M. The point M where the curve 
cuts the line L M shows the limit of the fill that can be 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 229 

made from the cut. In the data assumed in the above 
illustration, the number of cubic yards in the prismoids, 
the beginning of the cut, and the end of the fill were 
taken in round numbers, so that the method could be 
the more easily understood. The shrinkage and swell 
were also ignored. 

250. Overhaul from the Mass Diagram. — The area 
of each trapezoid in the mass diagram represents the 
volume of the corresponding prismoid moved 100 feet, 
therefore the area of the mass diagram represents the 
total volume moved 100 feet, and the area of the mass 
diagram divided by the total volume of cut equals the 
total distance hauled, or the distance between the cen- 
ters of gravity of the cut and fill, in hmidreds of feet. 
Assuming the volumes of the prismoids to be propor- 
tional to the areas of the trapezoids, the total haul is 
found as follows : 

300 + 850 + 1250 + 1475 + 1102 + 477 + 1505 + 1230 + 780 + 265 _ 

1600 ~ 

5.77, or 577 feet. 

The area of the mass diagram can also be obtained 
with a planimeter. 

To compute the overhaul according to the first 
method in Tf 247 (Fig. 126) in Fig. 128, draw the hori- 
zontal line D' E' at such an elevation that the distance 
D' E' intercepted between the points where the line 
cuts the curve is equal to the free-haul, and project the 
points D' and E' to D and E respectively; then the 
points D and E show the limits of free-haul ; the volumes 
B D, BE, and D' N E' are equal, and correspond to 



230 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

the part that is moved free before anj^ overhaul is allowed ; 
the volume of the rectangle D' E' E'^ D" is also hauled 
free, and the sum of the volumes L D'' D' and E' E^^ M 
is the volume upon which overhaul must be paid, or 
2192 cubic yards hauled 100 feet. The cost of the 
overhaul by the two methods at one cent per yard 
per 100 feet is as follows : 

By the first method 1600 X .77 X.Ol = $12.32 

By the second method 2192 X .01 = $21.92. 

251. Practical Application of Mass Diagram. — In 

practice, the volume upon which overhaul is allowed is 
measured in the fill after it has settled; therefore the 
overhaul is not usually computed until just before final 
acceptance of the work. This in some cases, however, 
is not possible, as, for instance, when the fill is being 
made from excavated material and borrow at the same 
time. In such cases the quantities are taken from the 
cross-section book, corrected for shrinkage or swell, 
tabulated as in table XX, and the overhaul computed. 
In this case earth is assumed to shrink 10 per cent., 
loose rock to remain constant, and solid rock to swell 
40 per cent., the corrections being shown in brackets 
in the second and fourth columns. The mass diagram 
for the quantities in table XX shows that the cut will 
make the fills up to sta. 39 + 34. The limit of the fill 
can also be foimd by proportioning between the ordi- 
nates in the seventh column opposite stas. 39 and 40. 
In this case the total cut is found to be 1836 cu. yds., 
the overhaul 106 feet, and the cost of the overhaul at 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 



231 



one cent per yard per 100 feet by the first method will 
be: 

1836 X 1.06 X .01 = $19.46. 

The above shows only one feature of the mass diagram. 
If a mass diagram be constructed for one or more sec- 
tions (miles), a study can be made of the balancing of 
the cuts and fills, the borrow or waste, as well as the 
overhaul, and the advisability of raising or lowering 
the grade, or shifting the line. 

TABLE XX. 



Sta. 



30 

31..... 

32 

33 

34 

34 + 70 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

39 + 34 
40 





Cut in 


Cu. Yds. 
















Correct'd 
Yardage. 


Fills, 
Cu. Yds. 








Earth. 


Loose 
Rock. 


Solid 
Rock. 




















331 





269 






— (33) 




+ (108) 


+ 674 




176 


50 


274 






— (18) 


+ (110) 


+ 592 




149 


39 


112 






— (15) 


+ (45) 


+ 330 




61 





99 






- (6) 


+ (40) 


+ 195 




50 

- (5) 








+ 45 


. . 






^ , 


, , 






— 20 


















— 150 


















— 400 


















— 500 


















— 530 


















— 700 



Ordinates. 



674 

1266 

1596 

1791 

1836 

1816 

1666 

1266 

766 

236 



-464 



252, The Cost of Excavation. — In railroad work the 
contractor is paid per yard of excavation, the excavated 
material to be placed in the fills by the contractor free 



232 KAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

of cost, provided there is no overhaul, therefore if the 
cuts balance the fills, and there is no overhaul, the cost 
to the railroad of building the subgrade depends upon 
the number of cubic yards of cut. 

The work of the contractor in making the excavations, 
and the items which he must consider in making his 
bids, are seven, viz., loosening, loading, hauling, spread- 
ing, repairs, and interest on cost of plant, superinten- 
dence and incidentals, and profit; and in many cases 
there is another item, viz., keeping the roadways in 
repair. 

253. Loosening. — Loosening the material in a cut 
depends upon the nature of the material and the method 
of working. In a long shallow cut of earth, sand, or 
gravel, the best method of loosening is by means of 
plows, two- or four-horse plows being used, and if the 
haul is not too great, drag- or wheel-scrapers can be 
used economically. As a wheel-scraper holds about ^ 
cubic yard and requires two horses, it is not economical 
to have the team travel too far empty. 

When the soil is of a clay nature, it is sometimes 
difficult to plow, and picks must be used. It is consider- 
ably more expensive to loosen material with picks 
than with plows. When picks are used, as far as possible, 
the material is removed in layers several feet thick, 
which enables the men with the pick to undermine a 
more or less vertical face and then to bring down a 
considerable quantity at one time. 

Powder is often used to advantage to loosen up 
material in order to facilitate the work with picks, 
particularly in some kinds of clay, shales^ and frozen 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 233 

earth. There is so much variation in materials that 
go by the same name that no certain method can be 
stated for loosening a material. The experience and 
ability of a contractor and his foremen to use the most 
economical method govern the cost of all excavation 
work. Some idea of this may be obtained from the 
statement that it is sometimes economical to blast and 
pick some forms of earth and to plow some forms of 
shale. 

The above statements apply to everything but solid 
rock, which must always be blasted in order to loosen it. 
This will be considered separately. 

It costs from | to 2 cents per cubic yard to loosen 
earth by plowing, and from 1| to 7 cents per cubic yard 
to loosen earth with picks. 

254. Blasting. — It is necessary to loosen all solid 
rock by blasting. In blasting the loosening is produced 
by the sudden expansion of a gas which is developed by 
the explosion of the blasting compound. Blasting com- 
pounds may be divided into two general classes, viz., 
slow-burning and detonating, the most common forms 
in general use for blasting purposes being gunpowder 
and dynamite respectively. Gunpowder is a slow-burn- 
ing explosive which is ignited by heat, generally a fuse or 
a wire connected with an electric battery; each grain 
ignites the adjacent grains, and the heat and pressure are 
comparatively low. Dynamite is composed of nitro- 
glycerin and infusorial earth; if mixed in the proper 
proportions, it is nearly or quite as powerful, cheaper, 
and safer to handle than pure nitroglycerin. Dyna- 
mite is exploded by a shock which explodes the whole 



234 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

mass instantly, usually by means of a fulminating cap 
which is fired by means of a wire and an electric battery. 
Many other explosives are used, but these illustrate the 
general idea. 

There is great economy in using the proper explosive 
with a certain kind of rock. The tendency of the slow- 
burning compounds is to loosen without shattering, 
while dynamite tends to shatter, and in many cases the 
loosening effect is not far-reaching. In general a hard 
brittle rock is most effectively blasted by dynamite, 
provided the only object is to loosen the rock; if the 
rock is to be used for building purposes, dynamite will 
probably shatter it too much. A softer, tougher rock 
will give better results when powder is used. It takes 
considerable experience and judgment to determine the 
amount and kind of explosive to be used, powder being 
mostly used in open cuts and dynamite in tunnels. 

255. Drilling. — In order to be effective powder 
and dynamite must be rammed in holes drilled in the 
rock. Drilling is one of the most expensive operations 
in connection with rock excavation. When there is 
sufficient drilling to be done in a comparatively small 
area, such as a tunnel, where is it economical to install 
an air compressor, machine rock-drills are used; but in 
small cuts strung out along a considerable length of line 
drilling must be done by hand. 

Drills for hand-drilling consist of bars of steel of various 
lengths sharpened as shown in Fig. 129. They are 
usually about IJ inches in diameter and are sharpened 
and tempered according to the nature of the rock being 
drilled ; the harder the rock, the blunter the point of the 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 235 

drill. The cutting-edge is wider than the main body of 
the drill by from 15 to 30 per cent., and is sharpened by 
grinding after a short distance — 6 to 18 inches of hole- 
has been drilled; and after the whole point of the drill 
has becom^e too blunt, it is repointed by the blacksmith, 
this being necessary every two or three days. Hand- 
drills are from 1 to 4 feet long or even longer. A churn- 
drill is a bar of wrought-iron shod with steel or a bar of 
steel; it is pointed like a hand-drill and ranges from 
6 to 20 feet in length, and m some cases even longer. 

The method of drilling a hole depends upon the depth 
of the hole. If the hole is to be only a foot or two deep, 
it will probably be drilled by one man. 
If it is to be 6 or 8 feet deep, it will prob- ' 
ably be started for a few inches by one 
man, and then one man will hold the drill 
while one, two, or three men strike it with 
hammers, drills of suitable lengths bemg 
used as the hole becomes deeper. If the 
hole is to be very deep, a churn-drill will be used as 
soon as the hole is deep enough to guide the drill and 
keep it going true. In churn-drilling two or more men 
raise the drill a few inches and allow it to drop, giving 
it a partial turn each time, the work being done by the 
weight of the drill. Holes may be drilled 20 or more 
feet by means of churn-drills. 

256. Loading and Firing. — On account of the great 
expense of drilling a hole, great care is taken in charging, 
tamping, and firing. When the blasting is to be done 
by dynamite, the required amount is placed in the drill 
hole. It is not absolutely necessary to tamp dynamite. 




236 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

but it will be more effective if it is tamped. A fulmi- 
nating cap attached to a wire is placed in contact with 
the dynamite, and then clay or sand is carefully rammed 
around the wire and against the dynamite with a wooden 
rammer; after this is done and proper warning given, 
the charge is fired by means of an electric battery. 

The effect of the explosion of powder depends to a 
great extent upon the amount of ramming; the more 
thorough the ramming, the greater the effect. In many 
cases, in order to increase the amount of powder that can 
be used and also the effect of the explosion, the hole is 
first sprung. Springing the hole consists 
"""'^"^ in exploding a small quantity of dyna- 
mite in the bottom of the hole, which 
has the effect of forming a small cham- 

:JLl^ ber at the bottom of the hole, as shown 

JT^^^^C' in Fig. 130, and also shatters the sur- 

FiG. 130. rounding rock to a certain extent. The 

extra space at the bottom of the hole 
allows more powder to be used, and the shattering of the 
rock causes the work of the powder to be more effective. 
After the powder is placed in the hole a fuse is run from 
the powder to the surface of the ground. The hole is 
then tamped with clay or sand, care being taken not to 
injure the fuse, which consists of a cord through which 
runs a thin vein of gunpowder, the cord being protected 
by coverings to protect it from dampness and injury. 

Gunpowder should never be tamped with an iron bar, 
a wooden bar being generally used, although copper bars 
are used. 

Blasting for excavation may cost from 30 to 60 cents 



RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 237 

per cubic yard, depending upon the nature of the rock 
and the depth of the cutting, a shallow cut being quite 
expensive. 

257. Loading, Hauling, and Spreading. — ^In If 252 
the second, third, and fourth items of the expense of 
excavation were loading, hauling, and spreading, the 
three items being so closely related that they might well 
be considered one — moving the loosened material. Leav- 
ing scrapers and steam-shovels out of the question, 
the excavated material must be loaded into the wheel- 
barrow, cart, wagon, or car; must be hauled to the fill, 
emptied, and, sometimes, roughly leveled up. The cost of 
loading is the sam.e per cubic yard for the same material, 
it making no difference whether it is shoveled into a cart 
or wagon, and very little difference between a wheel- 
barrow and a cart. There is considerable difference 
between the time it takes to unload a wagon, a cart, or a 
wheelbarrow, unless patent clumping wagons are used; 
but the main items that vary are the distance of haul 
and the amount hauled. A wheelbarrow will hold about 
I of a cubic j^ard, a cart about J, and an ordinary wagon 
about 1 cubic yard. The exact limits of distance that 
will be economical for each will depend upon other con- 
ditions than the above, and are difficult to state, but 
the economical limit for wheelbarrows may be placed 
at 100 feet, carts from 100 feet to 500 feet, and wagons 
for distances over 500 feet, this being governed to a 
great extent by the distance a driver and team must 
travel in returning. A man, horse, and cart carry | 
cubic yard; and a man, two horses, and a wagon carry 
at least 1 cubic yard, but take longer in dumping the load. 



238 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

258. Method of Working. — When cuts are earth 
and shallow and the fills not too long, excavation and 
fill are most economically made by means of plows and 
wheel-scrapers; but if the material can be handled by 
steam-shovels and the cuts are large enough, steam- 
shovels and wagons or cars would be used. 

If the cut is rock with a thin covering of earth, the 
method of working will be about as follows : A few men 
will excavate the part Ba, Fig. 131, with picks and throw 
it into the fill B b with shovels, until the distance is 
too great for shoveling — probably 12 to 15 feet. Then the 
material will be moved by wheelbarrows until the dis- 
tance is great enough to 
make horse-carts economi- 
cal ; and if the haul becomes 
very long, two-horse wagons 
Fig 131 ^^^ ^^^ economical, or even a 

small track and dump-cars. 
As soon as the loose or earthy material has been re- 
moved, the drilling and blasting begin. 

259. Profits of Contractor. — Contracting is a gam- 
ble. Despite experience and careful estimates, a con- 
tractor cannot count on his profits until the work is 
finally accepted and he is paid the full amount. It has 
frequently happened that with two contractors working 
on the same class of work under about the same conditions 
one will make money and the other will lose; this is 
particularly the case in rock excavation. The contractor 
or his representative goes carefully over the work, esti- 
mates the probable cost of doing the work, adds as 
large a percentage for contingencies and profits as he 




RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. 239 

possibly can and still underbid the other contractors. 
If the contractor has been on similar work and owns 
the necessary outfit, he can underbid the contractor 
who must buy a large portion of his outfit. He must 
pay his men and interest on his plant and make repairs, 
and should have a fair profit clear of all expenses — pos- 
sibly 10 per cent. New machinery that is bought for the 
work cannot all be charged against the one piece of 
work, but part of the cost must come out of the profits. 

There is great economy in properly handling the men. 
If the contractor furnishes quarters and board to the men, 
it is not only a source of profit, but he has the men under 
better control. Instances have occurred where a profit- 
able commissary counterbalanced a loss on the work. 

260. Force Account. — Where the railroad wishes 
to have absolute control of the work, or where there are 
so many uncertainties in connection with work that con- 
tractors are afraid to bid, the work is often let by force- 
account work. In this method the contractor furnishes 
all men, machinery, materials and repairs, and is paid 
a percentage on the total cost, usually 10 per cent. If 
there are a great many uncertainties about a piece of 
work, a contractor cannot afford to bid a fixed price 
without adding a percentage for contingencies that will 
make him safe against all probable delays and losses; 
this makes the cost too high for the railroad, and under 
these circumstances the force-account method is the 
fairest; the contractor makes a fair profit and the rail- 
road pays the exact cost. 



CHAPTER VII. 
TRESTLES. 



Article XXI. 

FRAMED TRESTLES. 

261. Permanent Trestles. — Trestles may be divided 
into two general classes, viz., permanent and temporary 
trestles. Permanent trestles may be built over large 
ravines or valleys, over a long stretch of marshy country, 
or broad stretches of shallow water. The ideal subgrade 
should have all fills made solid except where openings 
are absolutely necessary, in which case masonry should 
be used. Masonry approaches the nearest to solid fill. 
In such a roadbed there would be no necessity to rebuild 
bridges for heavier locomotives and no danger that rust 
is causing trouble in some hidden part. The nature of 
the roadbed is governed by the cost ; in some cases it is 
absolutely necessary to bridge the opening, and in other 
cases it is economy to use trestles of as permanent a 
construction as possible. Permanent trestles are usually 
built of steel and are called viaducts. A steel viaduct 
is built over a long stretch of low country of such nature 
that good foundations for the posts are obtainable, and 
where the difference between the elevation of the ground 

240 



TRESTLES. 241 

and the track is too great to make a fill economical^ and 
where the stream is not large enough to interfere with 
the foundations. They are also built over deep nar- 
row gorges, such as the Kinzua Viaduct, on the Oroya 
R. R., in Peru. Many items must be considered in 
order to determine the most economical method of 
bridging an opening, and a general rule is an impossi- 
bility. 

262. Temporary Trestles. — ^Temporary trestles may 
be built in the following cases : (1) to replace a structure 
temporarily so that traffic will not be dela3^ed; (2) to 
rmi aroimd a structure while it is being rebuilt; (3) to 
save fill temporarily on account of the excessive cost 
of borrow; and (4) to give time to studj^ the area of 
waterway required. The first two cases are self-ex- 
planatory. It frequently happens that it is difficult 
or very expensive to get the borrow with w^hich to com- 
plete the fill, and it is f oimd much more economical, both 
in cost and in time saved in opening the road to traffic, 
to put in a temporary trestle. Temporary trestles are 
built of wood and will last ten 3'ears on an average. 
After the road is in operation and long before the trestle 
will need repair, it w^ill be possible to haul the necessary 
material in trains and replace the trestle with embank- 
ment. This will be more expensive than earth borrow, 
but much cheaper than solid rock borrow. 

In countr}^ undeveloped by railroads it is frequently 
found difficult to approximate closely the area of water- 
way required by a stream. It is as poor engineering to 
build an opening too large as it is to build it too small; 
consequently if, as is often the case, it is about as eco- 
16 



242 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



nomical to put in a temporary trestle, this fact, coupled 
with the doubtful area of waterway required, will make 
it best to put in the trestle and then find the necessary 
data and construct the permanent opening before it is 
necessary to repair the trestle. 

263. Framed Trestle Bents. — ^Trestle bents are of 
two general t5^pes, viz.^ frame and pile. Framed trestle 
bents are built of squared timbers, usually all being the 
same size, 12 by 12 inches. 




Fig. 132. 



In Fig. 132 is shown the elevation of the simplest 
form of framed bent — the timber A is the cap, B the posts j 
C the batter posts, and D the sill. These members are 
framed together in five different ways, viz., mortise and 
tenon, dowels, drift-bolts, plaster-joints, and iron-plate 
joints. 

264. Mortise and Tenon Joint.— The mortise and 
tenon joint is, everything considered, the best form of 
joint, the principal objections to it being that it lessens 



TEESTLES. 



243 



a 




E 

b 


E f B 

c d 



Fig. 133. 



the vertical bearing strength of the cap and sill and is 

expensive to make. The hole is bored through the 

mortise and tenon separ- 
ately in such a way that 

when the wooden pin is 

driven through the finished 

joint, the tenon is drawn 

firmly into the mortise. In 

Fig. 133 in a and & are 

shown two views of the mortise, and in c and d are 

shown two views of the tenon. 

265. Dowel and Drift-bolt Joints. — 

( ~^ \ A dowel is an iron pin driven an equal 
distance into each of the members compos- 
ing the joint. In a trestle joint the dowels 
rn are usually a piece of square or round 

Fig. 134. f-inch iron about 8 inches long, driven 
into holes bored to receive them. Two 

dowels should be used, as shown in Fig. 134. If only 

one dowel is used, the upright timber is free to turn, 

but two dowels prevent it from 

turning and also give greater 

security against slipping out of 

position laterally. Dowels would 

be of little value to hold mem- 
bers if they were not in a verti- ° ^ [m] (o) ^ 

cal or nearly vertical position, Fig. 135. 

as they are in the trestle bents, 

batter posts never being far from a vertical position. 
Drift-bolts vary from a piece of round or square iron 

cut in the right lengths without either head or point 



V7 



244 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



B 



-^B 



to a piece of the same iron with a head on one end and 
a point on the other, Fig. 135. The heads are round, 
square, or countersunk. The points are usually blunt, 
being from one-half to one and one-half inches in length, 
and may be either wedge, pyramid, or conical-shaped; 
the points should be in all cases symmetrical. Drift- 
bolts vary in length according to the size of the pieces 
to be bolted together. In the case of 12- by 12-inch 
timber, the drift-bolts would be about 20 inches long. 
Drift-bolts are usually either f-inch square or f-inch 

round iron, and are driven 
into a hole bored f inch in di- 
ameter. 

266. Plaster Joint.— The plas- 
ter joint is made by spiking and 
bolting two pieces of 3-inch plank 
3 feet long and as wide as the 
main members of the joint, as 
shown in Fig. 136. 
The post is notched into the cap and sill about 1 inch, 
as shown at a 6 in the figure, in order to prevent motion 
parallel to the surface of the splices. The plaster joint 
is quite convenient to use in making repairs, as it can be 
made with the timbers erected. The joint in Fig. 136 
is formed of two pieces of plank 3 by 12 inches and 3 
feet long; these are fastened on each side of the main 
members by the bolts B and large spikes c, the spikes 
being of the same general pattern as ordinary nails, 
and 6 inches long. 

267. Iron Plate Joint. — The front and side views 
of an iron plate joint are shown in a and &, Fig. 137, 



•^--Ig--*! 



1 JL 



m 



-►B 



Fig. 136. 



TRESTLES. 



245 



and an isometric drawing of the joint is shown in the 
same figure at c. The joint may be made from a wrought- 
iron or steel plate about f inch thick. The members 
are bolted together through the holes shown, two bolts 
passing through each member. This joint is easy to put 
together; members may be replaced easily, but it is 
expensive. 

A joint should hold the parts firmly in place, give firm 
uniform bearing, should allow members to be replaced 
without too much trouble, and should be cheap. As 
stated above, the mortise and tenon joint is probably 
the best joint, everything considered, for the trestle bent. 



o o 

o o 

a b 




Fig. 137. 



and the plaster joint is very convenient in repairing. 
The iron plate joint gives the best bearing for abutting 
members, holds the members together firmly when well 
bolted, allows parts to be replaced readily, and probably 
makes as good a joint as the mortise and tenon, the main 
advantage of the mortise and tenon joint being that it 
can be made in the field from the timber, while any parts 
that are ordered from a factory are liable to cause delay. 
268. Dimensions of Trestle Bents. — The main 
points of trestle bents that are standardized by railroads 
are the dimensions of the members, the kind of joints, 
the length of the cap, the distance between centers of 



246 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

vertical posts, the projection a h. Fig. 132, of the sill, and 
the slope of the batter posts. An examination of the 
standard plans of fifteen railroads* shows a surprising 
variation in some dimensions that are susceptible of 
almost exact theoretical design. The standard plans 
mentioned above show the distance between the centers 
of the vertical posts to range from 3 feet inches to 
6 feet 6 inches for single-track bents, the usual distance 
being 5 feet. The distance between the centers of heads 
or bases of rails may be taken as 5 feet. If it is assumed 
that the vertical posts are to carry the entire load, 
then they should be placed 5 feet apart between centers; 
this assumption throws only lateral thrust into the batter 
posts. If the vertical posts are placed 4 feet between 
centers, and the batter posts are arranged as shown in 
Fig. 132, the load will be distributed equally on the vertical 
and batter posts, the principal advantage of this ar- 
rangement being that a greater bearing surface under the 
load is presented to the cap. 

269. The Cap and Sill. — The length of the cap in the 
fifteen cases ranged from 10 feet to 16 feet; 10 feet is 
ample for the arrangement shown in Fig. 132. Timber 
will crush more easily when the load is applied at right 
angles to the grain, than it will when the load is applied 
in the direction of the grain, therefore the cap and sill 
have a tendency to crush where the ends of the posts 
press against them. For this reason it has been the 
custom to make the cap and sill 12 by 12 inches, and some- 
times of hard wood, the difference between the compressive 
strength of wood parallel to the grain and at right angles 
* Wooden Trestle Bridges, Foster. 



TRESTLES. 247 

to the grain being so great that a soft-wood post is as 
strong as a hard- wood cap and sill. The length of the 
sill depends upon the height of the trestle bent, being 
equal to the distance between vertical posts plus 2 feet 
on each end projecting beyond the outer edge of the 
batter post plus the distance b c, Fig. 132, governed by 
the height of the bent. 

270. Posts. — The posts are also made 12 by 12 inches. 
The vertical posts are placed as described in ^ 263 and 
Fig. 132. The function of the batter posts is to carry part 
of the load, to stiffen the bent, and to prevent deformation 
by lateral thrust, which may be caused by the lateral 
vibration of locomotive and train and by wind blowing 
on both train and trestle. In many of the designs there 
is a space between the outer edge of the vertical post and 
the inner edge of the batter post under the cap; in one 
case the distance between the centers of the tops of the 
batter posts being 11 feet. A triangle is the only stable 
figure in framework; consequently when there are no 
diagonal braces in the trestle bent, the tops of the batter 
posts should touch the vertical posts, as shown in Fig. 
132, making the distance between centers 6 feet. The 
batter varied from 2 to 4 inches per foot, 3 inches per 
foot being the average and also the amount used in most 
cases. 

While it is undoubtedly a waste of lumber in many 
cases, all main timbers in a trestle bent are usually made 
12 by 12 inches in cross-section. The necessary size of 
timbers varies with the load, the height of the bent, and 
the kind of timber. A correct theoretical design would 
require a great variety of sizes of cross-sections, and the 



248 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



■I 


X 


\> d 


,/ 


X 


— W 



Fig. 138. 



trouble and cost of furnishing the odd sizes would in many 
cases more than counterbalance the material saved; con- 
sequently it is the almost universal custom to specify 
the same size for all the main members of a bent. 
271. Height of Trestle Bents.— The height of a 
trestle is the distance from the base 
of rail to the bottom of the sill. The 
height of the bent is the height of the 
trestle less the distance from the base 
of rail to the top of the cap ; the latter 
distance being the thickness of the 
tie, the depth of the stringer, and the 
thickness of the corbel. The height 
of the trestle is determined from the 
profile, and then the height of the bent is computed. 
The trestle bent shown in Fig. 132 can be used for all 
heights of trestle not greater than 24 feet. Some rail- 
roads require the diagonal sway bracing shown in Fig. 
132 for this height, but some do not. When the trestle 
is more than about 24 feet high, it is necessary to build 
the trestle in stories; this is 
done in several ways, one 
of which is shown in Fig. 
138, which represents a two- 
storied bent in which all the 
members are 12 by 12 inches 

except the sway braces ad, be, cf, and d e, which are 2^ 
by 10 inches in section. The diagonal braces are called 
sway braces; those shown in Fig. 138 are called lateral 
sway braces, and those in Fig. 139 are called longitudinal 
sway braces. 




Fig. 139. 



TRESTLES. 249 

The height of the stories is governed by the length 
of timbers that can be conveniently obtained, it being 
necessary in some cases to splice the sway bracing even 
when the longest planks are used. Ordinary lumber and 
timber is kept in stock in lengths of 14 and 16 feet, and 
sometimes 12 and 18 feet also. Any length over 18 feet 
must be sawed by special order, may cost more per 
thousand B. M., and is liable to cause delay. The 
stories of the bents* of high trestles may be of different 
heights in the same trestle, and are arranged and braced 
as shown in Fig. 139, but all the stories at the same 
elevation are the same height, the odd dimensions being 
near the ground. 

Timber trestles similar to that in Fig. 139 are more 
likely to be built in a section of the country where timber 
is plentiful. 

272. Foundation& for Framed Trestles.— The sill 
of a framed bent may rest on masonry, mud-blocks, or 
piles. For high trestles the foimdations «are usually 
masonry or piles; for trestles of ordinary heights the 
f oimdations may be any one of the three forms mentioned 
above, but usually consist of mud-blocks, or mud-sills 
and mud-blocks. The most economical foimdation for 
a trestle depends upon (1) the nature of the ground, and 
(2) the price of materials. 

273, Masonry Foundations. — ^The plan and elevation 
of a masonry foundation for a trestle bent is shown in 
Fig. 140. C D is the sill, and A B the ground surface. 
The length de of the masonry depends upon the length 
of the sill and the projections ab; the width c d and the 
depth depend upon the nature of the soil. In a very 



250 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

firm soil giving good supporting ability, a horizontal pro- 
jection of 6 inches on the sides and ends of the sill and a 
depth just below the frost line are sufficient; this would 
require the foundation to be 12 inches longer and wider 
than the sill, and about 2^ feet deep. If the bearing 
strength of the soil is poorer, the area of the base and the 
depth of the masonry must be greater. With timber 
at $30 per M. B. M., and masonry or concrete at $6.00 
per cubic yard, a masonry foundation in soil of good bear- 
ing strength will cost about one-half as much as a timber 
foundation of mud-sills and mud-blocks. 



A 









D 


1 1 










a- 


















> ■! 


e, 


1 






. Fig. 


140. 





274. Pile* Foundations. — When the soil is too soft 
and too deep for masonry foundations, unsuitable for 
mud-block and mud-sill foundations, and it is not desired 
to build a pile trestle, which would usually be built under 
the above conditions, piles are driven to support the 
sill. The number of piles to each bent depends upon the 
bearing strength of the piles, depending upon the material 
through which they pass and upon the material upon 
which their points rest. The piles are sawed off square 
and at the same level, and the sill rests directly upon them. 
The spacing of the piles depends upon circumstances, 
and the distances between them may vary on the same 
principle shown by the mud-blocks in Fig. 141. 



TRESTLES. 



251 



275. Mud-blocks. — In soil such as is likely to be 
found in valleys the foundation for framed trestle bents 
is usually formed of mud-blocks and mud-sills. In the 
firmer soils, where the bearing strength is sufficient, the 
mud-sills are often omitted. In Fig. 141 is shown one 
of the best arrangements of blocks and sills, all being 



n n n w 



c 



■1 



:^ 




Z]^ 



Fig. 141. 



12 by 12-inch timbers. The mud-sills b b are first laid 
in true surface at the proper elevation and 3 feet apart, 
center to center; across the mud-sills the mud-blocks 
a a are laid and spaced as shown, the mud-blocks being 
6 feet long, and then the bent is placed centrally upon 
the blocks, the sill C D being placed as shown in the 
figure. • 



252 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

Article XXII. 
PILE TRESTLE BENTS. 

276. Economy of Pile Trestles. — Pile trestles are 
limited by the length of the piles and are seldom over 30 
feet from the base of rail to the ground or water surface, and 
are usually considerably less than 30 feet high. Under 
proper conditions, such as through a swamp or marshy 
ground, or over a broad shallow stretch of water, pile 
trestles are the cheapest and best form of temporary 
work. There are over 2500 miles of single-track rail- 
road trestle in the United States alone, the longest 
stretch being across Lake Pontchartrain, near New 
Orleans, 22 miles long. 

The greater the number of piles to be driven, the cheaper 
the rate per foot of pile at which they can be driven ; it is, 
therefore, expensive to build short stretches of pile trestles 
at considerable distances apart. The great objection to 
pile trestles is the rapid decaying of the wood in dry earth 
and at the surface of the water, and the great difficulty 
of renewal. 

277. Bents with Piles Vertical. — Single-track pile 
trestles have four piles in a bent. The center piles 
are always vertical, but the end piles may be vertical 
or with a batter, as shown in Fig. 142. The arrangement 
with vertical posts is used for low trestles; the cap is 
usually about 12 feet long, and there is considerable 
variation in the spacing of the piles, one extreme being 
to space the piles at equal distances of 3 feet 8 inches 



TRESTLES. 



253 



between centers, and in the other extreme the middle 
space is 5 feet and the two outer spaces each 3 feet be- 
tween centers. 

278. Bents with Outer Piles Inclined. — In Fig. 
142 is shown a design for a trestle having a height varying 
from 10 to 24 feet. For heights of 5 to 10 feet no sway 
bracing is necessary. When the height is over 24 feet, 
the bent is built in two stories, the top story being about 
15 feet. Piles should be straight and not less than 10 
inches in diameter at the small (lower) end. The braces 




Fig. 142. 



are 4 by 9 inches, and are bolted and spiked on as shown 
in the figure. The cap is 12 by 14 inches and 12 feet 
long; the piles under the cap are spaced 2 feet 1 inch 
and 3 feet 10 inches, as shown; and the end piles have 
a batter of 2^ inches per foot. The longest pile that it 
is practicable to handle is 65 feet; this length requires 
the full length of two ordinary flat cars to transport 
them. 

279. Split Caps. — The cap of a pile trestle bent may 
consist of a soUd piece of 12 by 12-inch timber fastened 



254 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

to the tops of the piles by mortise and tenon joints or by 
drift-bolts in the same manner as in a framed trestle 
bent, but the split cap is used in most cases with piles. 
The details of a split cap are shown in Fig. 143. It 
consists of a tenon 4 inches thick, as wide as the 
pile, and as long as the depth of the cap, as shown 
in Figs. 143, a and b. The cap consists of two 
6 by 12 or 6 by 14-inch timbers, 
bolted through the tenon as shown in 
Fig. 143, c. The bolts are f inch in 
diameter, and usually have a head on 
one end, as in the ordinary bolt, but in 
some cases a bolt with a thread and nut 
on each end is used, which allows one 
part of the cap to be replaced at a time, 
and also allows both parts of the cap to 
be screwed tight independently. Split caps may also 
be used on frame trestle bents. 




Article XXIII. 

TRESTLE SUPERSTRUCTURE. 

280. Corbels. — In both framed and pile trestles the 
superstructure consists of everything above the cap, 
viz., corbels, stringers, cross-ties, and guard rails. The 
first sketch in Fig. 144 represents a side view of the super- 
structure at the bent, and the second sketch shows a 



TRESTLES. 



255 



longitudinal view of part of the superstructure, a a being 
the cap. 

The corbels, or bolsters, 6 6, for two 8 by 16-inch 
stringers, consist of a block 8 inches thick, 16| inches 
wide, and 4 feet long, resting symmetrically upon the cap 
a a and supporting the stringers c c. The corbels are 
notched one inch over the cap, and should be drift-bolted 
to the cap, the drift-bolts having countersunk heads, 
form part of the stringer splice, give a good bearing for 
the ends of the stringers, distribute the weight uniformly 




Fig. 144. 



over the part of the cap with which they come m con- 
tact, and fasten the superstructure to the bent. 

281. Stringers. — Stringers are the longitudinal tim- 
bers which support the track between bents. Two 
stringers are generally used under each rail, three being 
used in exceptional cases. In Fig. 144, c c, and in Fig. 
145 is shown the arrangement of a stringer when com- 
posed of two timbers. The timbers are long enough to 
span the distance between three trestle bents, or twice 
the distance between bents, and are arranged with 
broken joints, the ends of two timbers and the center 



256 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



of the companion timber being over the center of each 
cap; the dotted lines a a and & & in Fig. 145 show the 
corbel, c being the cap. 

Two 8 by 16-inch timbers are used for fairly heavy 
traffic. The timbers are spliced together over each bent 
by four f-inch bolts d d, Fig. 144, and are held apart by 
cast-iron separators 2^ inches in diameter, f inch thick, 
with -|-inch holes through them. The separators are 
shown in the second sketch in Fig. 144. The stringers 
are fastened to the corbels by means of f-inch bolts 



^J3 



) i i 


j 


1 1 


1 


i 


a 


c 


b 



Fig. 145. 




Fig. 146. 



which pass through the tie, stringer, and corbel, there 
being four bolts to each corbel, as shown in Fig. 144. 

282. Length of Stringers. — When the stringers act 
as a simple beam between bents, the distance between 
the centers of bents is usually 12, 13, or 14 feet, some 
railroads specifying 12 feet for main line and 14 feet for 
branch lines, on trestles of ordinary height. In a high 
trestle, within limits, the longer the span between bents, 
the cheaper the trestle. In the endeavor to follow the 
above principle, the stringers in some cases have been 
made longer and stiffened by the system of braces shown 
in Fig. 146 ; this is seldom done, however, simple stringers 
being used in almost all cases. It is very difficult and ex- 



TRESTLES. 257 

pensive to get 8 by 16-inch stringers in lengths greater 
than 24 or 26 feet; therefore when the span between 
bents is made more than 13 or at most 14 feet, both 
timbers forming the stringer must join over the center of 
each bent. 

283. Cross-ties. — Cross-ties for bridges and trestles 
are usually sawed and are 6 by 8 inches and 9 feet long, 
and are spaced about 14 inches center to center on main 
line and 16 inches on branches. They are fastened to 
the stringers with 5 by |-inch dowels. 

284. Guard Rails — Guard rails are usually 8 or 9 
inches wide and 5 or 6 inches deep, are notched 1 inch 
over the ties, and are fastened to the ties by 7 by |-inch 



Fig. 147. 

lag screws. The inner edge of the guard rail is one foot 
from the gauge of the rail, as shown in Fig. 144. The 
above is the manner of arranging the guard rail in most 
general use, but it is a question whether it is not as much 
of a menace as it is a safety device. If the train leaves 
the rails, and the outer forward wheel strikes the guard 
rail, as arranged in Fig. 144, it is possible, if not probable, 
that the guard rail will cause the truck to slew around 
into a position that will almost certainly throw it off 
the trestle. A much safer method of placing guard rails 
is shown in Fig. 147, and is used extensively, particularly 
on bridges, the guard rails being parallel to the main 
rails and five inches from them throughout the length 
of the trestle or bridge, and are brought together at the 
17 



258 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



center of the track beyond the Hmits of the opening. 
If the train jumps the track, with this arrangement of 
guard rails the inner wheel strikes the guard rail and the 
tendency is to throw the wheel back to the rail it left. 
Probably the best method would be to have the inner 
guard rails shown in Fig. 147 for safety and the outer 
guard rails to please the public. 

Long trestles, particularly high ones, should be oper- 
ated with the train under complete control. 

285, Ballast Roadbed for Trestles.*— In Fig. 148 
is shown the cross-section of a ballast floor system for a 



V. 



•8-»r-l-7-*t«-12>K 4-0 



->u 




FiG. 148. 



pile trestle. The cap A A is 14 by 16 inches and 16 feet 
long, and is drift-bolted to six piles forming the trestle 
bent, the bents being 14 feet apart. Nineteen 8 by 14- 
inch stringers B B, four of which are 28 feet, and fifteen 
of which are 14 feet long, rest directly upon the caps 
and form the floor of the roadbed. The four 28-foot 
stringers are placed one on each outer edge and one under 
each rail. The stringers are held in position by 2 by 6- 
inch planks C C, which are spiked to the bottoms of 
the stringers by 6 by |-inch boat spikes, D D. Two strips 
C C are used at each bent, one being spiked on each side 
* Illinois Central Railroad. 



TRESTLES. 259 

of the cap. The ballast is retained by 8 by 10-inch 
timbers E E, 28 feet long, which are fastened over the out- 
side stringers as shown in the figure, |-inch bolts F F, 
41 inches Jong, running through this timber, the stringer, 
and the cap. The timbers E E are also held in place and 
kept from overturning by cast-iron angles G G, which are 
bolted to the timber and the stringers. Cross-ties 
H H, 6 by 8 inches and 8 feet long, are laid with one foot 
of ballast under them. The ballast extends horizontally 
one foot from each end of the tie and then has a slope 
of 1 on 1^. 

All the timbers in the above structure are first framed 
and then creosoted and erected. There is a space of one 
inch between the stringers, which allows the water to 
drain out, thus reducing the tendency of the timbers 
to decay. 

This form of trestle superstructure has two important 
advantages over the ordinary superstructure, viz., it is 
far less liable to be damaged by fire, and if any part of the 
trestle settles, the track can be put in true line and sur- 
face in the same way as on ordinary roadbed. It has 
the disadvantage of being more expensive, and is used 
only for permanent structures. 

286. Trestles on Curves. — In order to run at full 
speed around a curve it is necessary to elevate the outer 
rail so as to counterbalance the centrifugal force of the 
train. One rule is to elevate the outer rail 1 inch for 
each degree of curvature up to 6 inches for a 6-degree 
curve, and for curves sharper than 6 degrees to reduce 
the speed a proportionate amount. The outer rail of a 
trestle on a curve is raised by one of the following meth- 




260 KAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

ods: (1) sloping the foundation; (2) an unsymmetrical 
bent; (3) changing the shape of the cap; (4) changing 
the shape of the corbels ; and (5) by means of the cross- 
ties. If the trestle is on a uniform curve, the same 
amount of elevation must be made at each point, but if it 
is on a transition curve, the amount 
of superelevation must be changed 
at each point. In all of the above 
methods the trestle bent is made sym- 
metrical except in the second case. In 
framed trestle bents it is much better 
Fig, 149. practice to use some method that 

keeps the bent symmetrical. It is 
comparatively easy to adjust pile trestles, as it is only 
necessary to saw the piles off at the proper elevation. 

287. Sloping Foundation. — One of the best meth- 
ods of providing for superelevation of the outer rail 
is to slope the foimdation, either masonry or mud-block, 
at the proper rate, and use a symmetrical bent. If the 
rail were to be raised 4 inches for 

a 4-degree curve, assuming the width 

of track between centers of rails to 

be 5 feet, the foundation would be 

sloped at the rate of 4 inches in 

5 feet, or f inch per foot. This Fig. 150. 

method is shown in Fig. 149. 

288. Unsjnnmetrical Bent. — This method is shown 
in Fig. 150, and consists in making the outer vertical 
and batter post longer by an amount sufficient to give 
the required slope to the cap, the sill and foundation re- 
maining level. The work of framing an unsymmetrical 




TRESTLES. 



261 



bent is considerably greater than for a symmetrical 
bent. 

289. Changing the Shape of the Cap. — The super- 
elevation may be provided for by changing the shape of 
the cap in two ways, viz., by means of a notched cap 
and by a cushion cap. 

A notched cap is shown in Fig. 151, and consists in 
cutting away a part of the top of the cap by an amount 



"L 



FiG. 151 

equal to the required superelevation. In doing this, 
care must be taken not to make the smaller end too 
thin, and if the notch is to be deep, it will be necessary 
to increase the depth of the original cap. 

A cushion cap is showm in Fig. 152. The small end 
of the cushion timber should not be too thin ; in order to 
prevent this, it may be better in some cases to make the 



Fig. 152. 



depth of the cap an inch or two less, adding the differ- 
ence to the thickness of the cushion. The cushion must 
be firmly fastened to the cap, preferably with bolts. 

290. Corbels of Different Thickness. — In using 
corbels of different thickness, the amoimt of the super- 
elevation must be added to the thickness of the outer 
corbel, as it would not be good practice to weaken the 



262 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

inner corbel by making it thinner in order to allow for 
part of the superelevation. 

The methods of providing for the superelevation of 
the outer rail described above are more economical than 
those that follow, as the changes are made to the bents 
and below the stringers and the superstructure is not 
changed. 

291. Special Cross-ties. — Superelevation of the 

outer rail may be provided for above the stringers in 

three ways, viz., by two forms of cross-ties and by blocks. 

In Fig. 153, a, is shown a cross-tie sawed to the required 

shape; in Fig. 153, b, is shown 
a regulation cross-tie with 
blocks under the rails, and 
' * ^"^ — \ j^ in Fig. 153, c, is shown a 

cushion tie. The first and 
last methods are preferable 
YiG. 153. to the second, and the first 

is probably the best of the 
three methods. The method in Fig. 153, a, requires a tie 
considerably thicker than the regulation thickness, at the 
outer end, and it may be made not less than 4 inches 
thick at the inner end, which for a 6-degree curve would 
require a maximum thickness of 10 inches at the outer 
end, and require that the ties be cut from 8 by 10-inch 
timber. A properly proportioned cushion-tie, in addi- 
tion to the regulation tie under it, would require con- 
siderably more timber than the tie shown in Fig. 153, a. 

Considering all the methods for providing for the 
superelevation of the outer rail on curves, tipping the 
entire bent, or sloping the foundation is the best method, 



TRESTLES. 263 

not only on account of all the parts of the structure being 
symmetrical, but also on account of the thrust of the 
train being normal to the foundation; of the other 
methods, the most economical is probably the method 
described in ^ 290, viz., corbels of different thickness. 

292. Locating and Erecting Trestles. — The resident 
engineer makes a situation plan showing the location of 
each bent, and places a stake on the center line at the 
exact location of the center of the bent. The elevation 
of the bottom of the sill is marked on the stake, and the 
contractor builds the foundation to the exact level. 
The elevation of bottom of rail and bottom of sill is given 
to the contractor; then, knowing the constant dis- 
tance from the base of rail to the top of the cap, the bent 
is framed and put together, and raised to its proper 
position on the foundation. The bent is held in place 
by guys or temporary bracing until the stringers are 
placed between it and the preceding bent; then the guys 
or temporary bracing can be removed, and the balance 
of the floor system put in place. 

293. Pony Bents. — Where an entire opening is oc- 
cupied by a trestle, there must be a support for the 
stringers at each end of the trestle where they reach the 
cut; a pony bent is used for this purpose. In Fig. 154, 
let A B be the grade of the base of the rail and C D the 
slope of the groimd at the end of the opening, C being 
the grade point. At the point E where the ends of the 
stringers reach, a pony bent E F is placed, E F being a 
side view of the bent. An excavation is made to a depth 
that will give good support for the mud-blocks a a, a 
regulation bent is framed, the only difference being that 



264 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



the posts b b are only two or three feet high. The entire 
back of the bent is boarded up with 2-inch planks, c c, 
and the back of the bent is filled up with earth to sub- 
grade, as shown in Fig. 154. 



A c 




294, Trestles Instead of Borrow. — When a trestle 
is used instead of borrow, the end of the trestle is usually 
made as in Fig. 155. The trestle is built as far as the 
embankment reaches, the foundations for every bent 
being placed on the original ground surface, the end bent 




Ftg. 155. 



being completely buried by the embankment, or a pony 
bent may be used as shown at a a', Fig. 155. 

The end of the fill a e has a slope of 1 on 1 J and covers 
the lower part of one or more bents. If the fills are made 



, TRESTLES. 265 

early in the construction of the road, are of heavy mate- 
rial, and have had ample time- to settle, and the trestle is 
built last, sometimes the mud-blocks are placed in the 
slope a e of the fill, in the same manner as the pony bent 
is placed, and no part of the trestle is buried by the fill. 
There is always danger of additional settling, and it is 
far safer to run the bents from the original ground sur- 
face. The part of the timber that is buried will decay 
rapidly; therefore in a permanent structure masonry 
foundations are built to a height from the ground that 
will prevent any part of the structure being buried. 

295. Protection against Fire. — Constant care is 
necessary to guard against the destruction of trestles 
by fire, not only by incendiaries, but also by live coals 
dropping from the firebox of the locomotive. In order 
to guard against the danger of the locomotive setting 
fire to the trestle, some railroads cover the caps of the 
bents with a strip of galvanized iron ; others use the 
ballast floor system partly for this reason. In all cases 
barrels of water are placed on the trestle at intervals of 
200 or 300 feet, if water is not otherwise accessible, 
special platforms being built at the level of the track to 
hold the barrels. 

296. Cost of Framed Trestles. — ^The cost of framed 
trestles depends principally on the cost of timber de- 
livered on the site of the trestle. Trestles cost less in a 
timber country. If timber must be brought from a 
distance, three items of cost must be considered, viz., 
(1) the cost of the timber at the mill; (2) the freight to 
the nearest point, and (3) hauling to the site of the 
trestle. The cost of timber trestles depends upon the 



266 BAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

cost of the timber, the amount of iron used, and the cost 
of erection. Contractors 'usually bid a price per thou- 
sand feet B. M. for the timber in the finished trestle, in- 
cluding all timber, iron, and work. In the timber 
country trestles may be built for $24 per thousand feet 
B. M. In sections remote from the timber country 
a trestle of long-leaf yellow pine may cost $30 or more 
per thousand feet B. M. The amount of iron used in a 
trestle depends upon the detailed design, but will be 
about $2.00 per thousand feet B. M. of timber. 

PROBLEMS. 

(a) How many thousand feet B. M. will there be in a trestle 
bent proportioned as in Figs. 132 and 144, the distance from the 
bottom of sill to base of rail being 24 feet? 

(b) How many thousand feet B. M. will there be in the foundation 
of the above bent, if proportioned as in Fig. 141? 

(c) How many thousand feet B. M. will there be in the stringers, 
corbels, ties, and guard rails if the spans are 12 feet and the dimen- 
sions as in t's 280, 281, 283, and 284? 

(d) What is the cost of the above trestle per running foot at 
$30 per thousand B. M.? 



CHAPTER VIII. 
CULVERTS. 



Article XXIV. 
DRAINAGE. 

297. Items Governing Drainage. — One of the most 
important problems in connection with railroad con- 
struction is the determination of the size of the openings 
required by the streams over which the line passes, 
usually referred to as drainage. It is practically im- 
possible to determine the required area of waterway by 
theoretical methods. Many elements enter into the 
discussion, and an approximation to the true area is 
made. The principal points to be determined as closely 
as possible are as follows : 

1. Rate of rainfall. 

2. Area of the watershed. 

3. Shape of the watershed. 

4. Character of soil and vegetation. 

5. Slope of watershed. 

298. Rate of Rainfall. — ^The rate of rauifall varies 
with the locality, different sections of country having not 
only different average yearly rainfalls, but heavy storms 

267 



268 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

of short duration are more common in some localities 
than in others. Very heavy rates of rainfall are usually 
of short duration, but they occur more frequently in some 
sections, and an immense amount of water falls in a short 
time. The very heavy rate of rainfall seldoms covers 
more than a small part of the territory over which the 
storm occurs. Irl the United States records covering a 
number of j^ears have been kept, and it is possible to ob- 
tain data of the maximum, minimum, and average an- 
nual rainfall, and the rate of rainfall, duration of the 
storm, and territory covered by sudden heavy storms, 
of all parts of the country. 

299. Area of Watershed. — In parts of the United 
States that have been thoroughly mapped by the U. S. 
Geological Survey it is possible to determine the area of 
the watershed of small sections of country from the maps 
sold by the U S. Geological Survey, particularly if the 
watershed is of considerable size. If the watershed is 
small, it will be necessary to determine the area in a more 
accurate manner, and it may be necessary to run a 
stadia survej^ around the watershed, the survey cor- 
responding to a rough farm survey. The notes of the 
survey should be plotted, the error of closure showing the 
accuracy of the work, and the area computed. The 
area may be computed by latitude and longitude differ- 
ences, but it will be accurate enough to measure the plat 
with a planimeter, or by coimting the squares if plotted 
on cross-section paper ; it will be seen later that the area 
need not be determined with great accuracy. The size 
of the drainage area governs the total amount of water 
that runs off. 



CULVERTS. 269 

300. Shape of Watershed. — ^The shape of the water- 
shed can be determmed at the same time that the area is 
obtained. The shape of the watershed is as important 
as its size. If it is long and narrow, or has long branches, 
a large proportion of the total rainfall will pass through 
the openmg before the water from the farthest portions 
reaches the opening, particularly if the area is large and 
the slopes flat. The other extreme is an almost circular 
basin with steep slopes, in which case a proportionately 
larger opening must be provided. 

301. Character of Soil and Vegetation. — A large 
proportion of the rainfall will percolate through a sandy 
or cultivated soil and will not be a part of the flood-flow. 
A clay or uncultivated soil will absorb very little of the 
rainfall and the full amoimt runs off immediately. Vege- 
tation of any kind tends to retard the run-off by absorb- 
ing part of it and also by interfering with the flow over 
the surface. Rocks and trees also interfere with a free 
flow and retard the rate of run-off. 

302. Slope of Watershed. — ^The slopes of the water- 
shed are one of the most important items in governing 
the rate of run-off. If the side slopes are steep, and the 
slope of the main stream is also steep, as in a mountain 
gorge, the stream becomes a torrent almost as soon as the 
storm begins, and the largest openings in proportion to 
the area of the watershed must be provided. If, on the 
other hand, all the slopes are flat, in which case there is 
usually vegetation, the slowest rate of run-off will be 
found. 

303. Methods of Estimating the Area of Water- 
way. — It will be seen from the discussion of the five 



270 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

governing items that a theoretical formula for determin- 
ing the area of waterway, or opening, required is an im- 
possibility.. There are two ways of estimating the area 
of opening required : 

1. Empirical formulas. 

2. By observation. 

Both methods must be governed by good judgment 
and experience. There are a number of empirical rules 
for computing the required area of waterway, two of 
which are in common use, viz,, Mycr's Formula and 
Talbot's Formula. 

304. Myer's Formula. — Myer's formula is 

-^ ^^ T^area of watershed in acres 

in which A is the area of waterway in square feet, C is a 
coefficient varying from 1 for a flat country under cul- 
tivation to 4 for a mountainous country and rocky 
ground. This formula is deficient in that it does not 
take into account the rate of rainfall and the shape of 
the watershed, and gives the same area of waterway for 
all parts of the world, which is manifestly untrue. In 
determining the value of the constant C to use, the en- 
gineer must keep in mind the five items of ^ 297, to- 
gether with experience in the same general region in 
which the opening is located. 

305. Talbot's Formula. — Talbot's formula is 

A==C /(acres) ' 

in which A is the area of waterway in square feet, C is a 
coefficient ranging from 1 for steep rocky ground to ^ for 



CULVERTS. 271 

a long flat valley, and the acres under the radical sign 
is the area of the watershed. In this formula the co- 
efficient C has the following values : 

C = 1, for short valleys with steep rocky slopes. 
C =: J, for a rolling agricultural valley three or four times as 
long as wide and subject to floods due to melting snow. 
C = ^ or J, for long valleys where there is not much snow. 

This formula takes into account, depending upon the 
judgment of the engineer, four of the five items in ^f 297, 
but does not take into account the rate of rainfall. Both 
of the above methods are in reality only a careful guess 
as to the area of waterway required, based upon the 
number of acres in the drainage basin. 

306. Example. — Assume the area of the drainage 
basin, or watershed, to be 1000 acres. From Myer's 
formula area of waterway required will be between 32 
and 128 square feet; and from Talbot's formula, 30 to 
178 square feet. These results show a very close agree- 
ment for the minimum area of waterway, but a con- 
siderable variation for the maximum. It devolves upon 
the engineer to approximate between these extremes and 
obtain as near as possible to the true area. An ex- 
perienced engineer will be able to approximate the true 
area of waterway required close enough for all practical 
purposes. 

It is not necessary to determine the area of waterway 
with extreme accuracy. The area of opening can be 
increased considerably by a small increase of masonry. 
Other conditions being equal, a circular culvert 8 feet in 
diameter will discharge nearly twice as much as a cul- 



272 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

vert 6 feet in diameter; but an 8-foot culvert will cost far 
less than twice as much as a 6-foot culvert. 

307. Practical Methods of Determining Water- 
way. — There are two practical methods of determining 
the required area of waterway, viz., by comparison and 
by observation and measurement. The safest and 
easiest method is, where possible, to observe the action 
of a culvert over the same stream. This method can 
seldom be used for small openings, as a short stream is 
not likely to be crossed by another road, but on larger 
streams it is frequently possible to find another bridge 
which may be used for comparison. 

When the conditions are such that it is impossible to 
determine the area of opening within reasonable limits, 
it will in some cases be economical to put in a temporary 
trestle and observe the conditions during heavy rainfalls. 
A trestle will last eight or ten years, which will give ample 
time to study the problem and obtain data from which 
an economical structure can be built. The depth, area 
of cross-section, and velocity of the water should be 
measured during the heaviest storm, and the volume of 
water in cubic feet per second be computed. The cul- 
vert can then be designed economically. 

308. Storm Flow and Economic Design. — It is not 
economical to attempt to design a culvert with a water- 
way large enough for any storm that might occur. Every 
few years there is an unusually heavy storm. At longer 
periods — twenty, thirty, or forty years — there may be a 
storm that breaks all previous records, or at least "as 
bad as the storm of forty years ago^' which exists in the 
mind of all "old inhabitants.'' To build a culvert to 



CULVERTS. 273 

carry a storm of the last-mentioned variety would re- 
quire an opening considerably larger than for ordinary 
storms, and the cost would be excessive. This is not 
economy, for two reasons: First, if well built, a culvert 
will not necessarily fail when its opening is insufficient, 
as the water can back up and discharge imder a head; 
and, second, the interest on the difference in the first 
cost required to build the ^^safe'^ culvert and the culvert 
to withstand ordinary conditions will, if compounded, 
more than pay for the few culverts that may be destroyed. 
Culverts are therefore built to carry the ordinary heavy 
storms. 

PROBLEM. 
A culvert costs $3000, is washed out at the end of twenty years, 
and then rebuilt at a cost of $3000. How does the final cost com- 
pare with the supposition that if it had been built larger, at a cost 
of $4500, it would not have washed out, interest at 5 per cent.? 



Article XXV. 
CULVERTS. 



309. Pipe Culverts. — Culverts are necessary at the 
lowest point of all railroad fills in order that the water 
may run off without obstruction ; they usually consist of 
pipes, single-box, double-box, or arch culverts, the first 
mentioned being for the smaller openings. 

For small drainage areas the most convenient form of 
culvert is the pipe culvert. The pipe may be either 
second-grade cast-iron or double-strength vitrified tile 
18 



274 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

pipe. Both kinds range in size from 12 to 30 inches in 
diameter; a smaller size than 12 inches is not used on 
account of the danger of obstruction. Pipes 36, 42, and 
48 inches in diameter are advertised, but only a small 
supply of these sizes is kept in stock, as they are not used 
as much as smaller sizes. These sizes must be ordered 
some time in advance if a large quantity is desired. 
Thirty-inch pipe is the usual maximum, and will be ample 
for an area of 2 acres under the quickest, and 25 acres 
under the slowest, run-off. 

310. Tile Pipe. — When the embankment is not more 

than 10 or 12 feet high, tile 
pipe is better than iron pipe, 
being easier to handle, more 
durable, and cheaper. Tile 
pipe is more easily broken in 
Fig. 156. handling, but if care is taken 

to cover it sufficiently with 
earth before dumping stone on it, after it is laid it is just 
as strong for all practical purposes as cast-iron pipe. Tile 
pipe is made in lengths of 2^ and 2 feet for small and 
large size respectively. 

In laying tile pipe the trench is excavated with vertical 
sides to the depth of the horizontal diameter of the pipe; 
the bottom of the trench is then shaped as shown in Fig. 
156, so that the bottom will be to true grade and afford 
a uniform bed for the body of the pipe, the earth being 
removed under each bell end so that the pipe will not 
rest on the bell. After the trench has been properly 
shaped and the pipe laid in, fine earth is thrown around 
the pipe and rammed so that the pipe will be supported 




CULVERTS. 275 

uniformly throughout its length. When the soil is soft, 
it sometimes becomes necessary to lay the pipe in a con- 
crete foundation, as shown in Fig. 156, b. In some cases 
a plain timber platform is used instead of concrete. 

Some engineers advocate filling the joints with cement, 
but it seems better practice to leave the joints uncalked, 
in which case water in the fill may find its way into the 
pipe, and in case of the pipe settling it is less liable to be 
broken. 

For culverts double-strength, salt-glazed, vitrified 
pipe should be used. 

311. Iron Pipe. — Second-grade iron pipe is used for 
culverts if it can be obtained, being equally as good for 
the purpose and considerably cheaper than first-quality 
pipe. It consists of pipe that has been condemned as 
first quality on accoimt of minor defects, such as small 
blowholes or imperfect bell end. First-quality cast-iron 
pipe is designed to withstand internal pressure, as in a 
water-main; defects that would be fatal in a water- 
main would not hurt the pipe at all for a culvert. Cast- 
iron pipes are made in 12-foot lengths, and the larger 
sizes are heavy and awkward to handle. They are laid 
in the same manner as vitrified pipes, and the same dis- 
cussion applies to the joints, except that cast-iron pipe 
with cemented joints is more liable to break in case of 
the foundation settling, on accoimt of its greater length. 

312. End Walls for Pipe Culverts. — In pipe culverts, 
either vitrified or cast-iron, the ends must be protected 
by masonry so that the pipe is held firmly in place and 
water cannot enter and seep through the fill along the 
outside of the pipe. The masonry may be stone, brick, 



276 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



or concrete, may have a plain vertical face, or may have 
wing walls where the pipe is large. The simf)lest form 
of end wall is shown in Fig. 157, being a rectangular wall 
of concrete. The foundation must be at least two feet 
deep in order to be below the frost line. The other di- 
mensions will depend upon the size of the pipe and the 
height of the embankment to be retained. A culvert 24 
inches or less in diameter will not need a more elaborate 







SECTION A-B 









1 




PLAN 



Fig. 157. 



arrangement than that shown in Fig. 157, but a culvert 
30 inches or more in diameter may need wing walls, an 
apron wall, and a paved entrance, in some cases. As 
end walls for pipe culverts are usually neither high, wide, 
nor deep, it is more convenient to build them of concrete 
or brick, unless suitable stone is found close at hand and 
cheaper. In some cases, owing to scarcity of material 
and there being little danger of the culvert being injured 
in the meantime, the end walls are not built immediately. 



CULVERTS. 



277 



in which cases the materials may be delivered after the 
track is Uid, thus reducing the cost. 

313. Timber Box Culverts, — In country where tim- 
ber is plentiful and stone or pipe hard to obtain, cul- 
verts are sometimes built of timber. They are built 
large enough to allow the permanent structure to be 
built or placed inside of them, so that it will not be 
necessary to cut a trench through the embankment. 
In Fig. 158 is shown the general arrangement of a 3 by 4- 
foot timber box culvert. At intervals of about 4 feet 
2 by 12-mch cross-pieces, a a, 5 feet long are placed. 



■ 



1 



J^??^ 



m 



1 



^ 




a^ 



SECTION A-B 

Fig. 158. 



The timbers forming the walls of the culvert and the 2 by 
12-inch planks forming the floor are laid on the cross- 
pieces. The 12 by 12-inch timbers forming the side 
walls are laid as shown in the figure and drift-bolted to- 
gether. The top is formed of 12 by 12 and 8 by 12-inch 
timbers placed as shown, the end timber c being 12 by 
12 inches, 5 feet long, and laid on the side wall timbers. 
The second cover timber d is 12 by 12 inches and notched 
four inches, so that it acts as a strut to hold the side walls 
from being pushed inward by the thrust of the embank- 
ment. Every fourth cover timber is notched in this way. 



278 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

and the balance of the cover timbers are 8 by 12-inch 
timbers laid with the 8-inch dimension vertical, all the 
cover timbers being 5 feet long. 

The end of the culvert may be stepped as shown in 
the figure, thus forming straight wing walls, or may be 
cut off square, forming a vertical face. All timbers 
should be drift-bolted together. 

At the present price of timber it is only in extreme 
cases that timber culverts are economical, and very few 
of them are built at the present time, particularly as 
they are at best only temporary, not lasting more than 
eight or ten years. 

314. Stone Box Culverts. — Waterways under em- 
bankments are built of masonry whenever it is econom- 
ically possible. A piece of well-laid masonry is practi- 
cally indestructible, and in the long run is cheaper than 
temporary structures that cost less in the first place but 
must be repaired and renewed. Culvert masonry is laid 
in two ways, viz., with mortar and without mortar. 
Rubble masonry without mortar is called dry rubble 
masonry. In most cases mortar is used in the construc- 
tion of culverts. 

Box culverts are single- and double-box culverts. 

315. Cover Stones. — ^The limiting feature of box 
culverts is the cover stone. The usual specification is 
that the cover stone shall have a footing of not less than 
one foot on each side wall and be twelve inches thick; 
thus for a 4-foot culvert the cover stone must be at least 
6 feet long and 12 inches thick. If the stone be only 2 
feet wide, it will contain 12 cubic feet and weigh about 
1900 pounds. This is a size that is difficult to obtain and 



CULVERTS. 279 

hard to handle ; consequently a clear v/idth of four feet 
is the largest box culvert built. If a greater openmg 
is necessary^ a double-box culvert is built. 

The required thickness of the cover stone cannot be 
computed theoretically, on account of the uncertainty 
about the amount of load that comes on it. The greatest 
possible load that could come on it would be the weight 
of the prism of earth directly over it plus a pressure from 
the train ; but the pressure is never as great as the above, 
miless there is very little fill above the cover stone, in 
which case the pressure could not be very great. If 
there is a considerable depth of fill over the cover stone, 
after it has thorough^ settled the 
earth will act as an arch, and there ^ 



M2^ 



mm:. 



may be hardly any pressure at all on 
the cover stone. 

There should be at least two feet 
of fill above all culverts, particularly Fig 159 

pipe and box culverts, to act as a 
cushion to prevent them from being broken by shocks 
from the engine. 

316. Single-box Culverts. — ^The smallest culvert 
that is built of masonry has a clear width of opening of 

2 feet and a height of 3 feet, as shown in Fig. 159. The 
size of openmg of single-box culverts ranges from 2 by 3 to 
4 by 6 feet, the dimensions varying by even feet and the 
first dimension being the clear width. 

The narrowest w^all that can be built substantially of 
rubble masonry is about 18 inches; the side walls of a 2 by 

3 culvert are made 2 feet thick and should extend at least 
9 inches below the level of the paving in firm gromid and 



280 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



deeper in softer earth. In all cases it is necessary to have 
a firm masonry foundation. 

In 3 by 3 and 3 by 4-foot culverts the side walls are 
2 J feet thick, in 4 by 4 and 4 by 5 culverts the side walls 
are 3 feet thick, and in 4 by 6 culverts they are 3$ feet 
thick. 

317. Double-box Culverts. — When a larger opening 
than 4 by 6 feet is required, a double-box culvert is 
built as in Fig. 160, all three walls being the same thick- 
ness. The thickness of the walls being 3 feet for 4 by 4 



1 



^i!. 



mmiL 



^3^.- 




Fig. 160. 



and 4 by 5 culverts, and 3^ feet for 4 by 6 culverts. When 
a larger opening than 48 square feet, equivalent to a double 
4 by 6 box culvert, is required, an arch culvert or a bridge 
must be built. If good cover stones are hard to obtain, 
small arch culverts will be built instead of large box 
culverts. 

The side walls are built rectangular in form, and when 
the ground is soft, they are built with a footing projecting 
from 6 to 9 inches when, in the judgment of the engineer, 
it is necessary. 



CULVERTS. 281 

In double-box culverts the middle wall is built with 
a pointed nose, as shown in the lower part of Fig. 160; 
this serves the double purpose of allowing the water to 
enter the culvert with less contraction and also makes 
it more difficult for debris to lodge against it. 

318. Arch Culverts. — Arch culverts are seldom built 
less than 5 or 6 feet in clear span, the arch being semi- 
circular, or as shown in Fig. 161. 

Arches of large span are usually built with a plain 
circular arc, three-centered, or elliptical. They are 
built in five ways, viz., stone masonry with a stone ring, 
stone masonry with a brick ring, 
all brick masonry, concrete, and 
reinforced concrete, the latter 
being used for large spans. The 
economical design of arch cul- 
verts is an extensive subject 
and will not be given here. 

319. Special Culvert Con- Fig. I6I. 
struction. — ^There are a num- 
ber of special features in culvert construction which 
are economical under the proper conditions. In m.any 
localities good masonry stone can be obtained readily, 
but suitable cover stones cannot be obtained. Two 
forms of special covers may be used, viz., reinforced con- 
crete and old railroad rails. Reinforced concrete cover 
slabs are made by embedding one of the many forms of 
reinforcing bars in the concrete. The bars are placed 
about two inches from the bottom of the slab and at 
right angles to the length of the culvert, and at a distance 
apart which is governed by the clear span, the size of the 




282 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

bars, and the thickness of the slab. The bars extend the 
full width of the slab, which has a bearing of one foot 
on each side wall. The reinforced concrete cover slabs 
may be made in two ways, viz., they may be made in forms, 
allowed to set, and then placed in position, or the forms 
may be arranged so that the slabs are made in place. 

Covers for culverts are made from old railroad rails 
by cutting them in lengths two feet greater than the clear 
span of the culvert and placing them on their bases, side 
by side across the culvert. 

The culverts that have been described indicate the 
methods of providing for the small or minor openings, 
such as are most frequently met with along a rail- 
road. Larger openings are spanned by arches or 

steel trusses. Wherever 
^^* possible, masonry should 
5 \ be used, as it ranks next 
Fig. 162. to a solid fill for perma- 

nency. 

320. Wing Walls. — End walls of culverts may be plain, 
as described in ^ 312, or may have wing walls. Wing 
walls are built in two general forms, viz., at right angles 
to the face of the culvert. Fig. 162, a, or flared. Fig. 162, b. 

The face of the culvert end wall when built without 
wings must be placed at the point m. Fig. 163, a, where 
the slope of the embankment strikes the original 
ground surface, in order to prevent the material forming 
the fill from rimning around the ends of the wall and into 
the culvert. This necessitates the length of the barrel of 
the culvert to be such that the part I g oi the masonry is 
exposed. In addition to the extra length, the plain end 



CULVERTS. 



283 



wall has the further disadvantage of causing the most 
contraction of the entering stream of water and is the 
easiest form for debris to obstruct. 

The straight wing walls shown in Fig. 162, a, may be 
built in two ways, viz., stepped, as shown by the full lines, 
and square, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 163, 6. 
This is a very efficient form for small box culverts, the 
principal advantage being that it is difficult for debris 
to obstruct it. If rubbish strikes the outer ends of the 




wings and lodges and forms a dam as high as the wall, 
the water can flow over the obstruction and drop into the 
culvert through the opening that will be left at the top. 
The principal disadvantage is that the straight wing walls 
are not as efficient as the flared wing walls in preventing 
water from entering the fill along the outside of the 
barrel of the culvert and undermining it. 

The flared wing walls shown in Fig. 162, 6, are the best 
form and have the most advantages, the only disadvan- 
tage being the cost. They are usually built at an angle 



284 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



of 60 degrees with the center Une of track, and are stepped 
as shown in Fig. 163, b. They retain the embankment 
better, obstruct the entrance of the water less, debris has 
less chance to lodge, and the water has less chance to 
undermine the barrel of the culvert, than in any other 
form of wing wall. 

321. Apron Walls. — In order to prevent water from 
undermining the pavement and then the whole culvert, 
apron walls are built. Apron walls are built at the outer 









B 




1 


1 






1 














--A^ 


1 










. A 


L . 1 
















A 








SECTION B-C ^' 



Fig. 164. 



end of the wing walls, under the wing walls, and across 
the entire width of the opening. An apron wall is shown 
at A in Fig. 164. The depth a b should not be less than 2 
feet below the top of the paving, and the width a c should 
not be less than 2 feet, and these dimensions should be 
made whatever amount may seem proper in the judg- 
ment of the engineer. If the end, wing, and apron walls 
are properly designed and built, it will be impossible 
for the water to imdermine the culvert. 



CULVERTS. 285 

322. Paving. — ^The paving begins behind and against 
the apron wall, is about 9 inches thick, and may be 
laid dry or in mortar as occasion requires. The top of 
the paving should present a fairly imiform and smooth 
surface, so that the flow of water will not be impeded 
and that there will be no possibility of obstructions form- 
ing. The stones should be roughly of uniform size and 
of a thickness equal to the required depth of the pave- 
ment. On account of the smaller coefficient of friction 
and the consequent greater discharging capacity, it will 
in most cases be better to smooth the surface of the pave- 
ment with mortar. When the paving is laid in mortar, 
there is no chance of trouble due to water passing between 
the stones and softening the foundation. 

The paving should slope in the direction of the current ; 
the steeper the slope, the greater the discharging capacity 
of the culvert; but as masonry should be built with its 
foundation horizontal, the pavement cannot be sloped 
much without expensive special construction. A pipe 
culvert may, however, be laid on quite a steep slope — 
possibly one foot in ten. 

323. Location and Length of Culverts. — Culverts are 
placed at the lowest part of a fill, or in such location that 
all water from the drainage area can find ready access 
to it. The top of the paving is placed at the elevation 
of the lowest point in the profile. In Fig. 163, 6, the point 
k in the surface of the paving m n is the lowest point in 
the profile, e is the corresponding point in the grade line, 
/ is the top of the barrel of the culvert, c rf is the width of 
roadbed, and the distance 6 / is governed by the size of the 
culvert and is determined by the above conditions. If 



286 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

the side slopes c g and d /i are 1 on IJ, then the length 
of the barrel of the culvert is 

gh= cd -^ Zef. 

Suppose a 4 by 4 box culvert is to be placed in a fill 
20 feet high, then ek = 20 feet, e / = 15 feet, and if 
c rf = 16 feet, g h -= Q\ feet. 

324. Culvert Masonry. — Culvert masonry is divided 
into two or three classes. When divided into three 
classes, they are (1) culvert masonry, (2) paving, and 
(3) coping. In some cases the coping is included in the 
general term culvert masonry, which leaves only two 
classes, viz., culvert masonry and paving, and contractors 
bid on these classes, the price per cubic yard being the 
same for all culverts of the same general class. 

In computing the amount of masonry in a culvert 
it is divided into two parts, one part being independent of 
and the other dependent upon the length of the culvert. 
The amount of masonry in the end walls, wing walls, and 
apron walls and the corresponding part of the paving 
for a culvert of a certain size and design is constant and 
independent of the length of the culvert. The amount 
of masonry in the barrel of the culvert depends directly 
upon the length of the culvert, and can be computed in 
cubic yards per running foot. After standard plans 
giving the proportions and dimensions of the culverts 
have been adopted, the number of cubic yards in 
each part of a culvert can be put in tabular form, 
by means of which the cost of a culvert can be quickly 
computed after the length of the barrel, g h, Fig. 163, 6, 
has been computed. 



CULVERTS. 



287 



In the following tables the wing walls are stepped 
on a 1 on IJ slope, make an angle of 30 degrees with the 
center line of the culvert, or 60 degrees with the center 
line of track, and have the same width as the side walls 
of the culvert, being the same as given in ^ 316. The 
apron walls are two feet wide for a 2 by 3 culvert, and two 
and one-half feet wide for all larger sizes, and three feet 
deep in all cases.* 



TABLE XXI. 
Single-box Culverts. 



WingV^alls. 
Apron Walls 

Coping 

Paving 

Totals.. 



Cubic Yards of Masonry in Wings and Aprons 
(Both Ends). 



2X3 3X3 3X4 4X4 4X5 4X6 



3.975 

4.889 

.889 

.713 

10.466 



5.469 

7.292 

1.111 

.780 

14.652 



10.722 
8.703 
1.111 
1.476 

22.012 



10.722 
9.259 
1.333 
1.711 

23.025 



15.417 

10.092 

1.333 

2.550 

29.392 



20.733 

10.925 

1.333 

3.426 

36.417 



TABLE XXII. 

Single-box Culverts. 





Cubic Yards of Masonry per Running Foot 
OF Culvert. 




2X3 


3X3 


3X4 


4X4 


4 X5 


4X6 


Side Walls 


.556 
.148 
.056 
.760 


.694 
.185 
.083 
.962 


1.056 
.185 
.083 

1.324 


1.056 
.222 
.111 

1.389 


1.278 
.222 
.111 

1.611 


1.750 


Covering 


.222 


Paving 


.111 


Totals 


2.083 







* L. & N. R. R. 



288 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



TABLE XXIII. 

Double-box Culverts. 



Wing Walls. 
Apron Walls 

Coping 

Paving 

Totals.. 



Cubic Yards of Masonry in Wings 
AND Aprons (Both Ends). 



4X4 



11.910 

13.148 

2.888 

3.402 

31.348 



4X5 



16.855 

13.980 

2.888 

4.780 

38.503 



4X6 



22.988 

15.091 

3.000 

6.434 

47.513 



TABLE XXIV. 

Double-box Culverts. 



Side Walls. 

Covering. . 

Paving. . . . 

Totals 



Cubic Yards of Masonry pEr Run- 
ning Foot of Culvert. 



4X4 



1.583 
.444 
.222 

2.249 



4X5 



1.917 
.444 
.222 

2.583 



4X6 



2.625 
.444 
.222 

3.291 



Example: How many cubic yards of masonry in a single 4 by 4 
box culvert under a 20-foot fill, width of roadbed 16 feet? As ex- 
plained in H 323, the barrel of the culvert is 61 feet long; then, re- 
ferring to table XXII, there are 61 X 1.389 = 84.73 cubic yards of 
masonry in the barrel of the culvert, and from table XXI there are 
23.025 cubic yards in the ends, making a total of 107.75 cubic yards 
of masonry in the culvert. 



CHAPTER IX. 
THE SUBGRADE. 

Article XXVI. 

ROADBED IN FILLS. 

325. The Subgrade. — The pernianent way of the 
railroad consists of the foundation, the ballast, and the 
track. The foundation consists of the cuts, embank- 
ments, trestles, bridges, etc. The finished surface of the 
foundation is called the subgrade, being the surface upon 
which the ballast is to rest. This surface, often called 
the roadhedj consists of the bottom of the cuts and the 
tops of the fills, and is finished so that its plane is paral- 
lel to and a certain distance below the plane of the base 
of the rail. The cuts and fills are often referred to as 
the grading. The term grading is more appropriate w^ile 
the work of excavating and filling is going on. The main 
function of the subgrade is to support the ballast which 
supports the ties, rails, and trains. In order to have 
a good track the subgrade must be of a character that 
mil not hold water, and be of such shape that the 
water will run off its surface readily. If the fills have 
been properly made, no stumps, logs, etc., having been 
placed in the fills, and their surfaces properly shaped, 

19 289 



290 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

they will always give a good support to the ballast. 
If poor material has been allowed to be placed in the fill 
and wet spots develop, these spots must be attended to 
before the ballast is placed on it. This can often be done 
by dumping the proper material in the place, the mixture 
making- a good material. Sometimes it is necessary to 
excavate all the poor material and replace it with good 
material. 

The roadbed must sustain not only the weight brought 
upon it, but also the forces of nature, such as frost and 
erosion. Despite this fact, very often very little care or 
forethought is given to the formation of an embankment. 
The material cheapest to handle is dumped or dragged 



Fig. 165. 

into the fill in the quickest and easiest way possible, with 
the result that the embankment will settle or cause trouble 
long after it should have attained a stable condition. 
326. Shape of Subgrade. — ^The stakes /, Fig. 165, on 
the center line are set when the final location is run; 
before any grading is done the slope stakes e and g are 
set at right angles to the center line on tangents and 
radially on curves. After an embankment has settled 
it is dressed to a true shape, the tops of slope c and d are 
made sharp and true, and the lines through these points 
are straight and parallel to the center line, the slopes e c 
and d g are trimmed to a uniform surface, and the sub- 
grade c ad IS also made uniform and even. When the 



THE SUBGRADE. 291 

embankment is trimmed as described above, it makes an 
excellent appearance, and the extra work necessary to 
so finish it is not great. 

Very often the top of the subgrade is finished per- 
fectly flat, but it is a grave mistake to do so, as water 
falling upon it will not run off, but will soak in, causing 
the ballast to settle into the subgrade, and in many 
cases causing sections of the embankment to slide down 
the slope. The top of the subgrade should always slope 
away from the center a, as shown in Fig. 165. The 
slope a d should not be less than ^ inch in 1 foot, giving 
a rise a 6 of 2 inches for an embankment 16 feet wide. 
In some cases this slope is made 1 inch in 1 foot, making 
abS inches. A sufficient slope will cause all rain water to 
run off immediately, and after a crust has formed prac- 
tically no water will soak into the embankment. 

327. Size of Embankments. — Different railroads 
have different standard widths of the top of the em- 
bankments. In some cases a railroad will have two 
standards, viz., one for main line and a narrower one 
for branches. For standard gauge roads the minimum 
width of subgrade for single track is 14 feet and ranges 
from this by differences of 2 feet up to 20 feet. For 
double track the width ranges from 26 to 33 feet. The 
required width depends principally upon the depth and 
width of ballast and the width of shoulder beyond the 
toe of the ballast slope. 

The usual slope is 1 on 1^ ; rock may run a little less, 
and clay a little more. Only in exceptional cases is a 
fill made of one uniform material, consequently slope- 
stakes are set for the above slope. 



292 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

328. Side-hill Fill. — When a fill is made on a steep 
hillside, care must be taken to prevent the fill from 
sliding both at the time it is made and later. The 
original surface should be roughened up and all leaves, 
soil, etc., removed, so that the new material will thor- 
oughly bond with the original surface in order to prevent 
a distinct cleavage between the two, it being necessary in 
some cases to cut rough steps, as shown in Fig. 166. All 




Fig. 166. 

stumps should be grubbed out ; otherwise after they de- 
cay the embankment is liable to slip down. A ditch 
should be constructed so that there is no possibility of 
water reaching the toe of slope a and soaking along the 
old surface, thus causing the fill to slip. In considering 
the above precautions a little time may be lost and some 
extra expense incurred, but it will be practically nothing 
compared to the time and money lost by a slip after the 
track is laid and in operation. 



THE SUBGRADEo 293 

Article XXVII. 
ROADBED IN CUTS. 

329. Roadbed in Cuts. — ^The roadbed in cuts is made 
wider than in fills, usually 2 feet wider, in order to allow 
for a ditch on each side. It is more of a problem to de- 
sign a properly shaped cross-section in cut than in fill. 
If the cut is short, the amount of water that falls on the 
side slopes and the roadbed will be small and will be 
taken care of by making the 
subgrade two feet wider, as in 
Fig. 167. If the cut is long 
and deep, the ditches must '^ \ 
be made larger, particularly Fig. i67. 
toward the lower end of the 

ditch. If the cutting is in rock, there will be no trouble, 
provided it is taken out deep enough to allow for ballast. 
If the cutting is in earth, care must be taken to provide 
a dry subgrade ; this can be done by the methods given 
for fills in \ 325. These methods are more liable to be 
necessary in cuts than in fills. A common source of 
trouble in cuts is due to springs which keep the subgrade 
soft and in poor shape. Springs must be drained off by 
means of subdrains, or some method that will prevent 
them from interfering with the formation of a dry and 
firm roadbed. 

330. Drainage in Tunnels. — In open cuts in earth 
the subgrade is formed sloping from the center the same 
as in fills. Rock cuts are usually excavated with a level 



294 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



subgrade. The roadbed in tunnels may be shaped the 
same as in open cuts if the volume of water to handle is 
small, but if there is considerable water it is too expen- 
sive to make a wide tunnel and the drainage must be 
provided for in some other way. One method is shown 
in Fig. 168. The subgrade is sloped toward the center, 

and a trench is excavated as 
shown. A tile drain of sufficient 
size is laid in the trench and sur- 
rounded by broken stone of ballast 
Fig. 168. size. The size of the trench and 

the tile will be governed by local 
conditions. If the grade of the tunnel is not as great as 
desired for the drain, the pipe can be given a greater 
slope b)^ making the trench deeper toward the lower end. 
331. Cross-section of Cuts. — ^The width of roadbed 
in cuts varies from 18 to 24 feet for single-track, and 
from 30 to 36 feet for double-track. In Fig. 169 is shown 




Fig. 169. 



the shape of cross-sections in cut in use on some roads, 
the dimensions to the right being for double-track, and 
the left for single-track. The main part of the roadbed 
has a slope of J inch in one foot and then a slope oi H 
inches in 1 foot into the ditch. The side slopes of the cut 
should be the same as the angle of repose of the material. 



THE SUBGRADE. 



295 




Fig. 170. 



The usual earth slope in cut is 1 on 1, and in solid rock 
4 on 1. If the earth is unstable, it is sometimes necessary 
to have side slopes of 1 on 1^ or even 1 on 2. 

If the cut is through both earth and solid rock, the 
cross-section is as sho^m in Fig. 170, the earth and rock 
having the usual slopes, and 
there should be a berm a & at 
least 4 feet wide at the top of 
the rock, to insure that no 
earth will slide on the track. 

332. Side-hill Cuts. — 
When the slope upon which a 

side-hill cut is located is steep and part of the section is 
in fill, great care must be taken in order to prevent the 
fill from slipping. The same precautions are necessary 
as in a side-hill fill, Tf 328. In Fig. 171 is shown a section 
in cut and fill, the center line stake being at C, A being 
the cut and B the fill. In many cases it is necessary to 

place a wall E of dry rub- 
ble or a crib-work in order 
to hold the fill, and it is 
frequently found necessary 
to shift the line so that all 
or a greater part of the sec- 
tion is in cut, particularly 
if the line is along a stream 
and high water is liable to reach the toe of slope, both on 
account of the danger of part of the slope being washed 
away and also on account of the fill being unstable ^^^en 
wet. A slope of this kind is usually protected by means 
of rip-rapping with large pieces of rock. 




Fig. 171. 



296 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

333. Measuring Cuts and Fills. — The width of road- 
bed in cut and in fill and the corresponding slopes are 
specified in the contract. The volume is computed by 
taking the area of the cross-section between the original 
ground surface and the specified shape of roadbed. If 
the cuts are made wider than the contract calls for, or 
when a fill made from borrow is made too wide, the con- 
tractor is paid for the volume determined by the specified 
sections, and cannot claim pay for the extra work unless 
he had previous written instructions from the resident 
engineer. 

Cuts should be taken out to true lines and surfaces in 
the same manner as for fills, ^ 326. It is very difficult 
to do this except when the cut is entirely in earth, but 
an effort must be made to do the work so as to leave as 
neat an appearance as possible. A contractor will 
usually do neat work without compulsion; he must 
take out all the material, and does not get paid for 
excess material, and it is greatly to the advantage 
of a contractor to be known as one who does good 
work. 

The final cross-section taken by the engineer is there- 
fore to determine whether or not the cuts and fills are as 
large as specifications demand as well as to determine 
the amounts. 

334. Excess Cutting. — There is one case in which 
the contractor is always paid for excess material. If, 
owing to natural conditions, after the cut has been made 
it is found that a part of a slope is unstable and liable to 
slip into the cut, this material must be removed and the 
contractor is paid for it. Suppose, for example, in the 



THE SUBGRADE. 297 

rock cut shown in Fig. 172, the strata stood on end 

and the part B were loose and 

tended to shde along the line 

a h, then the contractor would 

be paid for removing the part 

B. If, however, the slopes 

were shattered by the explo- Fig. 172. 

sion of excessive charges of 

powder, then the contractor would have to remove all 

dangerous material at his own expense. 




Article XXVIII. 
DITCHES. 



335. Function of Ditches. — Properly constructed 
and located ditches and drainage are absolutely essen- 
tial for the proper maintenance of roadbed and track. 
AVhen the roadbed is free from water, the track can be 
kept in true surface and line with much less expense. 
The danger of the upheaval of the track by frost is also 
avoided. Proper ditches and drainage are economical 
because they make the track safer and greatly lessen the 
cost of maintaining the track. Ditches should be con- 
sidered a part of the original construction of the road and 
made at the same time, and in some cases before the cuts 
and fills are made. It is more economical to keep the 
water out of earthwork than it is to delay the digging of 
ditches until after the earthwork has been even partially 



298 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

saturated. It takes constant care on the part of the 
track gang to keep ditches clear and in good shape. 

336. Ditches in Cuts. — In cuts the ditches must 
carry the water that falls upon the slopes and the road- 
bed. When a cut is short and the grade slopes both 
ways from the center of the cut, ditches shaped as in 
Fig. 169 will be ample. The size of a ditch depends upon 
the area drained and the material in the cut. They must 
be large enough to carry off the heaviest rainfall and pre- 
vent the water in the ditch from rising to the height of 
the lowest part of the ballast. If the material in the- cut 
is liable to erode easily, it will be necessary to pave the 
ditch. If the cut is long, a ditch several feet deep may be 
needed toward the end of the cut, and it may be neces- 
sary to protect it with stonework to keep it from washing 
out, and also to deflect the water so that it will not affect 
the adjacent fill. 

337. Berm Ditch and Slope of Ditches. — It is im- 
portant that no more water should run down a slope than 
actually falls on the slope. In order to prevent this it 
is customary to dig a berm ditch on the higher side of the 
cut, as shown at A in Fig. 167. The berm ditch inter- 
cepts all water coming down the hillside and prevents it 
from running down the slope of the cut. If this water 
were allowed to run down the slope of the cut, it would 
certainly wash gullies in the slope and obstruct the track 
ditches with the eroded material, and might even wash 
material on the track, necessitating constant vigilance 
to prevent wrecking a train. There would also be danger 
of landslides. 

338. Ditches along Fills. — Ditches are necessary 



THE SUBGRADE. 299 

along fills, particularly to take care of the water from 
the adjacent cut. On the upstream side of fills there is 
a tendenc)^ of the water to run toward the fill and strike 
the bottom of the fill and then run along the toe of slope 
until it reaches the culvert. This tendency should be 
prevented by a suitable ditch, otherwise the water will 
have a tendency to seep under the embankment along 
the original ground surface, which may cause trouble, 
and, in addition, if the volume of water is considerable, it 
will wash the toe of slope. Suitable ditches should 
therefore be constructed parallel to the toe of slope, leav- 
ing a berm of sufficient width, and running from the cut 
on each end of the fill to the culvert or other opening 
through the fill. 



Article XXIX. 
FENCES. 



339. Necessity for Fences. — State laws or the State 
Railroad Commission usually require the railroad com- 
pany to build and maintain the right-of-way fences. 
Failure to comply with this law makes the company 
liable to heavy fines, for the market value of stock killed, 
or double the market value, etc. In most of the States 
the maintaining of a legal fence and cattle guards in good 
condition releases the railroad company from payment 
for damage to stock, as the damage is then attributed to 
the negligence of the owner of the animal. The payment 
of damages to the owner for cattle killed is not the only 



300 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



-E 



:/T 



expense saved by good fences. In many cases derail- 
ments are caused by striking cattle, and the price of the 
cattle is very small compared to the loss due to possible 
injury to passengers or crew, and damage to track and 
rolling stock. 

340. Post and Rail Fence.— In the majority of cases 
a fence 4^ feet high is required. In regions where good 
chestnut timber is plentiful probably the best and most 
suitable fence is the post-and-rail fence. The posts are 
made by taking a round log about 8 inches in diameter 

and hewing off two faces 
as shown in Fig. 173, and 
then cutting as many holes 
through it as there are rails, 
usually four. These holes 
are about 5 inches high and 
2 inches wide. The rails 
consists of round timbers 4 
inches in diameter, or half 
of a large timber, and 9 feet 
long. The ends of the rails are sharpened to a long, wedge- 
shaped point, and are tightly wedged into the post, as 
shown, before the next post is rammed into place. The 
distance between posts is 8 feet, and this length of fence 
between posts is called a panel. This style of fence is the 
most effective for turning stock that there is, especially 
if five rails are used, and the two lower rails are placed 
near together. 

The posts are set by digging a hole not less than 2 feet 
deep and about 1 foot in diameter ; the post is placed in 
it, the rails fitted in, and then the hole is filled up with 



'/-I 



3 



' ^ ^/i>/^ > X^^/^/ ^ ^/ ' ^y>/^/j>//^,v/* .^ irlyJt///\^^ 



Fig. 173. 



THE SUBGRADE. 



301 



dirt and thoroughly rammed around the post. From 
the nature of this fence there is less liability of its getting 
out of shape than of any other fence that is built. A 
fence built with chestnut rails and locust posts will last 
twenty and possibty thirty years. The decay of the part 
of the post in the ground occurs first, that being the most 
vulnerable part of the fence. The principal source of 
danger to be guarded against with this class of fence is 
fire. 
341. Board Fence. — ^The fence that comes nearest 



-L 



\i 



Fig. 174. 



to the post and rail fence is shown in Fig. 174. This 
fence consists of boards one inch thick, six inches wide, 
and sixteen feet long, nailed to posts. The posts are 
square or round, with one side hewed flat for a distance 
of five feet, are eight feet long, and are set eight feet apart 
between centers. The boards are placed with ends join- 
ing on alternate posts, as shown in Fig. 174, which makes 
a stronger structure than if all the boards joined ends on 
the same post. The board fence requires considerably 
less timber than the post and rail fence, both the longi- 
tudinal pieces and the posts being smaller in the former ; 



302 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

the whole structure is Hghter and the board fence is more 
Uable to be broken. While it gives a better nailing 
surface to hew the front face of the post flat^ very often 
the only requirement is that the posts shall not be less 
than six inches in diameter and that all bark shall be 
removed. The best woods for posts are locust, cedar, 
white oak, and chestnut. 

The main advantages of post and rail and board 
fences are that they present an efficient barrier to stock 
and the stock cannot injure themselves on them. Since 
the requirements are that the upper part of the top rail 
shall be 4 feet 6 inches from the ground, four rails or 
boards six inches wide leave only 2 feet 6 inches for the 
four spaces, or 7| inches clearance between rails, and a 
five-rail fence has spaces that no domestic animal can 
crawl through. 

342. Wire Fences. — On account of the increased cost 
of timber and lumber, wire fences are coming into general 
use. The cheapest form of wire fence consists of four 
or more strands of either plain or barbed wire fastened 
to posts eight or more feet apart, by means of small 
staples made for the purpose, the top wire being 4 feet 
6 inches from the groimd. Wire fences have both ad- 
vantages and disadvantages as compared to post and 
rail or board fences. The two principal advantages are 
cheapness and ease of construction, and the ease with 
which the ground near them can be kept clear of weeds 
and bushes. As the ground cannot be cultivated nearer 
than two or three feet from the fence, it takes continual 
work and watchfulness on the part of both the adjacent 
owner and the railroad company to prevent weeds and 



THE SUBGRADE. 303 

bushes from growing along the fence. With a wire 
fence this growth cannot only be cut with greater ease, 
but if care is exercised around the post, the rubbish can 
be burned without any injury to the fence, which is im- 
possible with a fence built entirely of wood. The burn- 
ing also discourages future growth. 

The disadvantages are that the smaller domestic 
animals, such as sheep and hogs, can force their way 
through it, and horses and cattle are liable to run into it 
and injure themselves, particularly when barbed wire 
is used. This latter objection has caused a board to 
be used for the top of the fence. This may be simply 
a 6 by 1-inch board nailed on like the top board in Fig. 
174. A better device, which takes very little more 
lumber and is much stronger, is to take two strips 4 by 1 
inch and nail them together T shape. 

343. Patent Wire Fences. — As stated in the previous 
paragraph, it is almost impossible to build a fence with 
straight strands of wire stretched from post to post that 
will turn the smaller animals. This has led to the patenting 
of innumerable devices and kinds of wire fences. These 
patents vary from some method of connecting the straight 
strands by means of vertical strips to a wire netting. 
One of the simplest devices is to take small strips of wood, 
about li by i inch, or plastering lath, about li by J inch, 
and weave them through the wires, as shown in Fig. 175, 
stapling them fast. This prevents the animal from 
separating the wires and squeezing through. Even 
when the straight strands are stretched very tight, 
it is possible in the space between two posts (8 feet 
apart) to pull one wire up and the adjacent wire 



304 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



down until the space between them is materially in- 
creased. 

It is not worth while to describe any of the patented 
types of fences, as a description of one or more of them 
can be found in the advertisements of almost any engi- 
neering paper. 

344. Gates. — On a trunk line carrying heavy traffic 
probably under no circumstance will an opening of any 
kind be allowed in the right-of-way fence, but along rail- 
roads of less importance there are still grade farm cross- 



FiG. 175. 



ings which necessitate a gate on each side of the rail- 
road. While there are probably as many styles of gates 
as there are types of fences, gates may be divided into 
two general types, viz., swinging and sliding gates. 
A sliding gate is shown in Fig. 176. The gate is pushed 
to the right, sliding on the cleats a a until the vertical 
piece 6 6 at the center of the gate strikes the cleats a a. 
The gate then nearly balances and is readily swung to a 
position at right angles to the direction of the fence. 
When closed, the ends of the horizontal boards of the gate 



THE SUBGRADE. 



305 



project over the cleats d d and may be fastened by some 
simple contrivance. 

345. Post Braces. — One of the most important points 
in connection with wire fence construction is to keep the 




Fig. 176. 

end posts in a vertical position and prevent them from 
being pulled over in the direction in which the wires tend 
to pull them. No post will withstand the pull of the 
wires unless it is securely braced. One of the simplest 
forms of brace is shown at e e, Fig. 176. This brace e e 




Fig. 177'. 

should be not less than 3 by 4 inches in cross-section, 
and should be both notched into the posts and securely 
nailed to the posts. When there is a long piece of con- 
tinuous fence, at intervals a post should be braced both 
ways (Fig. 177), as it costs very little more and adds 
20 



306 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

greatly to the security of the fence, and also allows the 
wires to be stretched in sections. 

346. Setting Fence Posts. — The depth to which posts 
are planted, or set in the ground, depends almost entirely 
upon the kind of post. The post for the post and rail 
fence described in ^ 340 extends into the ground 2 feet. 
This amount is ample, both on account of the bottom of 
the post being much larger in cross-section than the top, 
and also, from the nature of the fence, much less strain 
is brought upon the post than on a wire fence post. 
While it is poor economy to use posts that are too light, 
wire fence posts are often as small as 4 inches in diameter 
at the top and very little larger at the bottom; this, in 
addition to the greater strain brought upon them, requires 
that wire fence posts should be planted deeper than 2 
feet — probably not less than 2^ feet. The manner of 
planting them will depend upon the nature of the soil 
in which they are placed. If the ground is rocky, it will 
be necessary to excavate the hole the full depth, but if 
there is no rock, the bottom (always the larger end) 
may be pointed and driven the additional distance by 
means of heavy wooden mauls, after the hole has been 
dug 1 J or 2 feet deep. 

347. Iron Fence Posts. — The best woods for fence 
posts are locust, cedar, white oak, and chestnut, in the 
order named. Posts fail by rotting off near the ground, 
due to alternate wetting and drying. All of the desirable 
woods for posts mentioned are becoming very scarce, and 
iron posts are coming into use for wire fences. On ac- 
count of the small diameter of iron posts — 2 or 2^ inches 
— it is difficult to make them stand perpendicularly and 



THE SUBGRADE. 307 

hold firmly. There are many devices for securing this. 

A substantial post of very simple construction is shown 

in Fig. 178. It consists of a piece of ordinary 2 or 2^ 

inch pipe, 7 feet long, set in a concrete base. A box or 

nail keg is buried at the proper point, the pipe 

is placed in the center of it, and concrete 

rammed aroimd it. Holes by means of which 

the wires may be attached are drilled in the 

post. This makes a very substantial post, 

and if kept painted, will last indefinitely. 

If the ground is firm, the concrete may be ^ . , ■ 



placed in a hole of the right dimensions, Fig. 178. 
and no box or keg need be used. These posts 
can be braced by placing guy wires instead of the struts 
in Fig. 177. 



Article XXX. 



CATTLE GUARDS AND PASSES; ROAD 
CROSSINGS. 

348. Location of Cattle Guards. — Where there is 
a permanent break in the right-of-way fence, as at a 
highway grade crossing, cattle guards are necessary. 
A stock guard, commonly called cattle guard, is a barrier 
in the track for the purpose of preventing the passage 
of stock- along the track. Cattle guards are placed at 
each side of a highway grade crossing to prevent stock 
from straying along the track while being driven over it; 
they are also placed so as to guard the approaches to 



308 RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 

bridges, tunnels, and deep cuts. The important railroads 
are rapidly eliminating grade crossings and there are 
correspondingly fewer cattle guards necessary. 

349. Pit Guards. — Cattle guards are of two general 
classes, viz., pit guards and surface guards. Pit guards 
are built open or covered. Practically there is only one 
barrier that will stop a frightened animal, and that is an 
open pit so wide that the animal cannot jump across it, 
and so deep that it cannot get out if it falls into the pit. 
An open pit cattle guard consists of a pit several feet 
deep and 8 or 10 feet wide, extending clear across the 
track, the ties being supported by stringers resting upon 
masonry walls, the whole arrangement resembling a short 
girder bridge. While efficient as a cattle guard, this 
arrangement has several serious objections. It is a 
serious source of danger in case of derailment, it is danger- 
ous for track-walkers and watchmen who are compelled 
to walk along the track at night, and it also breaks the 
continuity of the roadbed, thus adding to the expense of 
maintaining the track. In modern railroading they are 
out of date and are only used in extreme cases. 

350. Surface Guards. — Surface cattle guards are 
of two kinds, viz., those intended to present insecure 
footing to animals and those with projecting points in- 
tended to inflict pain. The first kind usually consists 
of strips of wood or metal spiked to the ties, either 
parallel or at right angles to the rails, both inside and 
outside the rails, and presenting upturned corners or 
edges. The ballast is usually removed as far as the 
bottom of the ties to aid in the intimidation of the stock. 
These strips or slats should be so spaced apart that there 



THE SUBGRADE. 309 

will either not be room for the hoofs of cattle or horses 
to slip between them, or else at such distance apart that 
their hoofs will not be caught and held fast in case they do 
slip between the slats. 

A guard of the above description is shown in Fig. 179. 
The slats consist of a triangular piece of wood formed by 
sawing a piece of 4 by 4-inch timber as shown in Fig. 
179, A. These are nailed to special ties 8 by 8 inches 
and 12 feet long, as shown in Fig. 179, B. 

The form of surface guard designed to inflict pain is 
usually made of iron or steel slats, the upper edges of 
which are formed into saw teeth, or studded with spike- 
like projections, fastened to the ties in a similar manner 



B A 

Fig. 179. 

to that shown in Fig. 179. When either of these forms 
run at right angles to the rails, they are nailed or fastened 
to strips which run parallel to the rails. As a usual thing 
the slats run parallel to the rails. A guard formed of 
slats running at right angles to the rails is known as the 
gridiron pattern. 

351. Relative Merits of Surface Guards. — Guards 
with wooden slats are most generally used. They are 
cheaper in first cost than metal guards, and are more 
cheaply and easily repaired when torn out or damaged, 
but this form is liable to be destroyed by fire. The 
objection to a device that causes pain is that it is just 
as severe on men who stumble on it in the dark as it is 



310 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



upon beasts. There is no form of cattle guard that gives 
entire satisfaction. In no case must the guard be of 
such form that man or beast can get a foot caught in it. 
In all the preceding discussion only the part of the 
cattle guard that is placed in the track has been described. 
In all cases a cross fence is built extending from the 
right-of-way fence to a point as close to the track as the 
necessary clearance of the train will allow. The plan 
and elevation of the cross fence are shown in Fig. 180. 




Fig. 180. 



This arrangement leaves only the track apparently 
open, and if the track guard is efficient, stock will not 
be able to pass this point. 

352. Cattle Passes. — Cattle passes are for the purpose 
of allowing stock to pass from one side of the railroad to 
the other without getting on the track. When a rail- 
road crosses a farm, cutting it into two parts, and buys 
only the necessary width of right-of-way, the railroad 
is compelled to provide some way in which stock may 
cross. Leaving out grade farm crossings as out of date, 



THE SUBGRADE. 311 

this is usually accomplished by means of a cattle pass. 
Cattle passes may consist of a girder bridge with the 
opening beneath it barely wide and deep enough for 
stock to pass through^ or it may be large enough to 
drive a team through. These are subject to all the 
objections mentioned in 1[ 349 about pit cattle guards. 
In most cases the railroad prefers to buy the entire 
farm, and sell the parts it does not want in such a manner 
that no right to a cattle pass can be claimed. If abso- 
lutely necessary to build a cattle pass and the height 
of embankment is sufficient, it will be better to build an 
arch culvert of suitable size. 

353- Overhead Crossings. — On first-class railroads 
all highways crossing the railroad cross overhead or be- 
low the grade. No grade crossings should be put in un- 
less absolutely necessary, and in many cases the rail- 
road, municipality, or both jointly go to great expense 
to eliminate grade crossings. Grade crossings are a con- 
stant source of danger and expense. Many people are 
killed and injured, animals killed, and vehicles demol- 
ished every year in grade-crossing accidents. The 
railroad is compelled by law to maintain crossing gates 
and to pay the salary of a watchman to operate them, 
and despite these precautions, many accidents happen. 

An overhead crossing consists of a bridge crossing 
the track, with a clearance of at least 20 feet between the 
top of rail and the lowest part of the clear span of the 
bridge. If the road crosses the railroad at a cut, the cost 
of the bridge is the principal expense. The general 
arrangement is as shown in Fig. 181. The bridge is 
supported on two piers and the two abutments. The 



312 



RAILROAD TRACK AND CONSTRUCTION. 



distance between the gauge of the outside rail and the 
closest side of the adjacent pier should not be less than 
4 feet, and is usually more, as the ditch should pass 
between the piers and the track. When the road does 
not cross at a cut and cannot be conveniently diverted 
so that it will cross at a cut, it is necessary to build 
artificial approaches, usually of earth. The slope of the 
road on the approaches should not be greater than 
ten feet to the hundred. 

354. Under-grade Crossings. — In many cases it is 
found more convenient to build the road under the rail- 





FiG. 181. 



road. When there is plenty of headroom, the highway 
may pass through an arch, but in most cases there is not 
sufficient height for an arch, and a bridge is built to carry 
the railroad. In many cases it is necessary to lower the 
highway in order to get sufficient headroom under the 
railroad. This grading is commenced at such a distance 
from the railroad that the grade of the highway will not 
be too steep. AVhen the highway slopes downward 
toward the railroad from both sides, it is often quite a 
problem to drain the crossing properly, as it is lower than 
any of the surrounding ground surface. 



THE SUBGRADE. 313 

An overhead crossing does not interfere with the track^ 
but it is quite expensive to lay an additional track unless 
the bridge was designed for the additional track in the 
first place. If the original bridge was not designed with 
a length sufficient to allow the additional track to pass 
under it^ it wall be necessary to build an entire new bridge 
when the new track is laid. 

The ideal highway crossing is where the highway passes 
through a masonry arch under the railroad. In this 
case the track is not interfered with, and additional 
tracks can be laid by extending the arch. An ordinary 
under-grade crossing has a bridge in the track with all 
the disadvantages of bridges as compared to a solid 
and continuous roadbed. It has the advantage, how- 
ever, of allowing additional tracks to be laid by simph^ 
extending the abutments and placing additional girders 
or trusses. 



INDEX. 



A. 

Annual cost of ties, 40. 
of treated ties, 41. 
Apron walls, 284. 
Arch culverts, 281. 
Area of watershed, 268. 

of waterway, 269. 
Ash-pits, 131. 
Axes, 164. 



B. 

Ballast, broken stone, 8. 

advantages of, 8. 

cross -section, 10, 20. 

depth of, 10. 

dressing slopes, 11. 

relative value, 12. 

size of stone, 9. 

stone for, 12. 
distributing, 188. 
economy of, 21. 
function of, 7. 
laying, 21. 
materials for, 8. 

burnt clay, 19. 

cinder, 16. 
volcanic, 18. 

culm, 18. 

decomposed rock, 18. 

dirt, 19. 

gravel, 14. 

oyster shells, 18. 

sand, 17. 

slag, 13. 

stone, 8. 

washed gravel, 15. 
Blasting, 233. 



Bolts, 78. 
Borrow, 221. 
Borrow-pits, 221. 
Box culverts, 277. 
Bridge warning, 197. 

watchman, 199. 
Broken stone ballast, 8. 
Brush hooks, 169. 
Bumpers, 193. 
Burnettizing, 37. 

C. 

Cattle guards, 307. 

pit, 308. 

surface, 308. 
Cattle passes, 310. 
Center line markers, 179. 
Claw bars, 156. 
Clearances, 196. 
Coal bins, 131. 
Corner stones, 179. 
Creosoting, 37. 
Crossovers, definition, 108. 

theory of, 109. 
Cross-sections, 209. 

baUast, 10, 20. 

notes, 209. 
Cross-ties, annual cost, 40. 

data, 25, 26. 

decay of, 28. 

distributing, 186. 

function of, 22. 

hewed, 30. 

inspection, 32. 

life of, 27. 

metal, 42. 

Carnegie steel, 43. 
economy of, 47. 



315 



316 



INDEX. 



Cross-tieS; metal, Hartford, 45. 

steel, in U. S., 42. 

York process, 45. 
planting trees for, 33. 
preservation, 34. 

annual cost, 41. 

Blythe process, 37. 

Burnet tizing, 36. 

Columbia process, 38. 

creosoting, 37. 

economy of, 40. 

kyanizing, 36. 

vulcanizing, 36. 
reinforced concrete, 47. 

economy of, 49. 
sawed, 30. 
seasoning, 29. 
size of, 31. 
spacing, 32. 
wood for, 26. 
Culverts, apron walls, 284. 
arch, 281. 
cover stones, 278. 
double-box, 280. 
end walls, 275. 
iron pipe, 275. 
length of, 285. 
location of, 285. 
masonry, 286. 
paving, 285. 
pipe, 273. 
single-box, 279. 
special, 281. 
stone, 278. 
tables, 287. 
tile pipe, 274. 
timber box, 277. 
wing walls, 282. 
Cut, see excavation, 215. 

D. 
Dimension book, 196. 
Ditches, along fills, 298. 

berm, 298. 

function of, 297. 

in cuts, 298. 

in tunnels, 294. 

slope of, 298. 
Divisions of a railroad, 144. 



Divisions, posts, 175. 

Drainage area, of watershed, 268. 

of waterway, 269. 

Myer's formula, 270. 

practical methods, 272. 

Talbot's formula, 270. 
items governing, 267. 
rate of rainfall, 267. 
shape of watershed, 269. 
slope of watershed, 269. 
soil and vegetation, 269. 
storm flow, 272. 
tunnels, 293. 

E. 

Embankments, 220. 

borrow, 221. 

borrow-pits, 221. 

measuring, 296. 

overhaul, 224. 

sections, 224. 

shrinkage, 222. 

side-hill, 292. 

size of, 291. 

swell, 223. 

waste, 221. 
Engineer corps, preliminary, 206. 

location, 206. 

resident, 210. 
Excavation, blasting, 233. 

classification, 216. 

cost of, 231. 

cross-sections, 294. 

definition, 215. 

drilHng, 234. 

drills, 235. 

dynamite, 233. 

earth, 217. 

excess, 296. 

hardpan, 218. 

hauling, 237. 

loading, 237. 

loading and fixing, 235, 

loosening, 232. 

loose rock, 218. 

measuring, 296. 

powder, 233. 

roadbed in, 293. 

side-hill, 295. 



INDEX. 



317 



Excavation, solid rock, 219. 
spreading, 237. 



Fence-posts, braces, 305. 

iron, 306. 

setting, 306. 
Fences, board, 301. 

necessity for, 299. 

patent wire, 303. 

post and rail, 300. 

wire, 302. 
Fill, see embankment, 220. 
Force accoimt, 216. 
Frogs, bolted, 100. 
. crossing, 105. 

ordering, 107. 

movable-point, 107. 

riveted, 102. 

spring, 103. 

stiff, 100. 

yoked, 101. 

G. 
Gates, fence, 304. 
Grade crossing, highway, 180. 

railroad, 106. 
Gravel ballast, 14. 
bank, 14. 
stream, 14. 
washed, 15. 
Guard rails, 115, 257. 



H. 

Hammers, napping, 155. 
sledge, 155. 
spiking, 153. 
Headblocks, 117. 
Highway crossings, grade, 180. 
overhead, 311. 
under-grade, 312. 



I. 

Inspection, by supervisor, 201. 
general, 205. 
of cross-ties, 32. 



Inspection of rails, 63. 
of track, 203. 



Joints, see rail joints, 68. 



Kyanizing, 36. 



Level boards, 169. 
Lining bars, 157. 
Locomotives, 4. 
history of, 2. 

M. 

Maintenance of way, 144. 

Mass diagram, application, 230. 

plotting, 227. 

overhaul from, 229. 
Mile posts, 175. 
Monthly estimates, 213. 



N. 



Nut-locks, 80. 

O. 

Overhead road crossings, 311. 
Overhaul, 224. 

computing, 225-230. 



Permanent way, definition, 1. 
Pick, clay, 160. 
tamping, 160. 
Pinch bar, 158. 
Point switch, 92. 
Post-hole digger, 172. 
Progress profile, 214. 



R. 



Rail braces, 90. 
fork, 172. 
tongs, 168. 



318 



INDEX. 



Rail joints, 68. 
bolts, 78. 
bolt-holes, 81. 
bonded, 72. 
Bonzano, 76. 
bridge, 76. 
broken, 70. 
continuous, 77. 
definition, 68. 
insulated, 72. 
M. W. 100 %, 76. 
nut-locks, 80. 
permanent, 77. 
shape of ends, 69. 

lap, 70. 

Sayre, or miter, 69. 
splice-bars, 74. 

angle, 74. 

fish plates, 74. 
square, 70. 
supported, 71. 
suspended, 71. 
Railroad, definition, 1. 
first in U. S., 3. 
history of, 2. 
miles in U. S., 5. 
Rails, bridge, 54. 

chemical composition, 58. 
development of, 53. 
guard, 115. 
handhng, 187. 
inspection and tests, 63. 

branding, 67. 

drilling, 66. 

drop test, 64. 

section, 65. 

straightening, 66. 

weight, 65. 
length of, 63. 
life of, 67. 
manufacture, 57. 
No. 2, 66. 

privileges of inspectors, 67. 
shape of ends, 69. 
shape of section, 59. 

A. S. C. E., 60. 

P. R. R., 61. 
space between ends, 82. 
Stevens, 55. 
weight of, 62. 



Railway, definition, 1. 
Referencing, 207. 
Re-locating, 208. 
Residency, 210. 
Resident engineer, 210. 
Ring posts, 177. 
Road -crossings, grade, 180. 

overhead, 311. 

signs, 177. 

under-grade, 312. 
Roundhouses, 129. 



Section, gang, 146. 

houses, 150. 

posts, 176. 

residency, 224. 

supervisor's, 145. 

track, 145. 
Shims, expansion, 81. 
Shovels, 160. 
Shrinkage, 222. 
Sidings, freight, 125. 

passing, 123. 

second track, 124. 
Signals, absolute blocking, 139. 

automatic, 137. 

banjo, 141. 

color of, 142. 

development, 135. 

flags, 165. 

lanterns, 165. 

manual, 136. 

manual-automatic, 137. 

permissive blocking, 139. 

semaphore, 140. 

track circuits, 138. 
Situation plans, 2-12. 
Slope stakes, 209. 
Snow-plows, attached, 191. 

push, 192. 

machine, or rotary, 192. 
Spikes, channeled, 84. 

common, 84. 

common vs. screw, 89. 

function of, 83. 

points of, 85. 

screw, 86. 

wear of, 88. 



INDEX. 



319 



Splice-bars, angle, 75. 

Bonzano, 76. 

fish plates, 75. 

100 per cent., 77. 
Stand-pipes, or water-columns, 

133. 
Stub switch, 93. 
Subdivisions, 145. 

posts, 176. 
Subgrade, 289. 

shape of, 290. 
Superintendent, 144. 
Supervisor, 145. 

duties of, 201. 

inspection by, 201. 
Swell of rock, 223. 
Switch, definition, 92. 

definitions, 94. 

derailing, 121. 

formulas, lead, 95. 
radius, 96. 

foot guards, 116. 

guard rails, 115. 

headblocks, 117. 

interlocking, 121. 

point, 92. 

point rails, 98. 
length of, 97. 
long, 98. 
reinforced. 111. 
short, 98. 

rods, 112. 

stands, 113, 114. 

stub, 93. 

timbers, 118. 
bill of, 120. 
length of, 119. 

T. 

Tamping bar, 159. 

pick, 160. 
Telegraph hne, 198. 
Terminals, 128. 

yards, 125. 
Tie-plates, 49. 

annual cost of, 52. 

economy of, 53. 

on curves, 50. 

types, Goldie, 51. 



Tie-plates, types, P. R. R., 52. 

Servis, 50. 
Ties, see cross-ties, 22. 
Tools, see track tools, 151. 
Track clearances, 196, 197. 
foreman, 147. 
gang, 146. 
gauge of, 195. 
inspection, 201-205. 
policing, 200. 
signal circuits, 138. 
sign-posts, division, 175. 

mile, 175. 

ring, 177. 

section, 176. 

subdivision, 176. 

whistle, 177. 

yard limit, 176. 
signs, center line, 179. 

corner stones, 179. 

road crossing, 177. 

trespass, 179. 
tanks, 134. 
tool house, 149. 
tools, axes, 164. 

ballast fork, 163. 

brush hooks, 169. 

carpenter's kit, 174. 

chisels, 170. 

claw bar, 156. 

flags, 165. 

gauges, 166. 

grubbing hoe, 172. 

hammer, napping, 155. 
sledge, 155. 
spiking, 153. 

hand-cars, 166. 

houses, 150. 

jacks, 167. 

lanterns, 165. 

level boards, 169. 

lining bar, 157. 

list of, 151 

pick, clay, 160. 

pick, tamping, 160. 

pinch bar, 158. 

post-hole digger, 172. 

punches, 170. 

push-cars, 166. 

rail fork, 172. 



320 



INDEX. 



Traek tools, rail tongs, 168. 

scythes, 169. 

shovels, 160. 

tamping bar, 159. 

wrenches, 163. 
walker, 148. 
Tramway, definition, 1. 

history of, 1. 
Trespass signs, 179. 
Trestles, ballast roadbed, 258. 
bent, framed, 242. 

pile, 252. 

pony, 263. 

joints, dowel, 243. 
drift-bolt, 243. 
iron plate, 244. 
mortise and tenon, 242. 
plaster, 244. 
cap, 246. 
corbels, 254. 
cost of, 265. 
cross-ties, 257. 
dimensions, 245. 
filling a temporary, 188, 264. 
foundations, 249. 

masonry, 249. 

mud-block, 251. 

pile, 250. 
guard rails, 257. 
height of, 248. 
locating and erecting, 263. 
on curves, 259. 

sloping foundation, 260. 

special cap, 261. 

special corbels, 261. 

special cross-ties, 262. 

unsymmetrical bent, 260. 
permanent, 240. 
posts, 247. 

protection against fire, 265. 
siU, 246. 



Trestles, split caps, 253. 

stringers, 255. 
length of, 256. 

temporary, 241. 
Turnouts, see switches, 92. 

designing, 99. 

tables, 97. 

U. 
Under-grade crossing, 312. 



Vulcanizing, 36. 



W. 

Waste, 221. 

Water, columns, 133. 

for locomotives, 132. 

tanks, 132. 
Watershed, 268.* 
Waterway, 269. 
Whistle posts, 177. 
Work train, crew, 185. 

engine, 184. 

force, 185. 

form of, 183. 

function of, 182. 

tool car, 184. 
Wreck train, 190. 

crew, 190. 



Y. 

Yards, 125. 
gravity, 126. 
limit posts, 176. 
partial gravity, 128. 



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Symmetrical Masonry Arches 8vo, 2 50 

Treatise on Arches 8vo, 4 00 

Johnson, Bryan, and. Turneaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of 

Modern Framed Structures Small 4to, 10 00 

7 



Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges : 

Part I. Stresses in Simple Trusses 8vo, 2 50 

Part II. Graphic Statics 8vo, 2 50 

Part III. Bridge Design 8vo, 2 50 

Part IV. Higher Structures Svo, 2 50 

Morison's Memphis Bridge Oblong 4to, 10 00 

Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches. 

Svo, 2 00 

Waddell's De Pontibus, Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers i6mo, mor, 2 00 

* Specifications for Steel Bridges i2mo, 50 

Waddell and Harrington's Bridge Ergineering. (In Preparation.) 

Wright's Designing of Draw-spans. Two parts in one volume Svo, 3 50 



HYDRAULICS. 

Barnes's Ice Formation Svo, 3 00 

Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing from 

an Orifice. (Trautwine.) Svo, 2 00 

Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics Svo, 5 00 

Church's Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels. 

Oblong 4to, paper, i 50 

Hydraulic Motors .Svo, 2 00 

Mechanics of Engineering Svo, 6 00 

Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems i6mo, morocco, 2 50 

Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power 12 mo, 3 00 

Folwell's Water-supply Engineering Svo, 4 00 

Frizell's Water-power .Svo, 5 00 

Fuertes's Water and Public Health i2mo, i 50 

Water-filtration Works i2mo, 2 50 

Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in 

Rivers and Other Channels. (Hering and Trautwine.) Svo, 4 00 

Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It Large i2mo, i 5o 

Filtration of Public Water-supplies Svo, 3 00 

Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Water-works Svo, 2 50 

Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal 

Conduits Svo, 2 00 

Hoyt and Grover's River Discharge Svo, 2 00 

Hubbard and Kiersted's Water- works Management and Maintenance Svo, 4 co 

* Lyndon's Development and Electrical Distribution of Waler Power. . . .Svo, 3 00 
Mason'.s Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.) 

Svo, 4 00 

iiierriman's Treatise on Hydraulics Svo, 5 00 

* Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics Svo, 4 00 

Molitor's Hydraulics of Rivers, Weirs and Sluices. Un Press.) 

Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Water- 
supply Large Svo, 5 00 

* Thoma-> and Watt's Improvement of Rivers 4to, 6 00 

Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies Svo, 5 00 

Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams. 5th Ed., enlarged 4to, 6 00 

Water-supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895 4to, 10 00 

Whipple's Value of Pure Water Large i2mo, i 00 

Williams and Hazen's Hydraulic Tables Svo, i 50 

Wilson's Irrigation Engineering Small Svo, 4 00 

Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover Svo, 3 00 

Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics , Svo, 3 00 

Turbines 8vo, 2 50 

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MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. 

Baker's Roads and Pavements 8vo, 

Treatise on Masonry Construction 8vo, 

Birkmire'sj Architectural Iron and Steel 8vo, 

Compound Riveted Girders as Applied in Buildin£:s 8vo, 

Black's United States Public Works Oblong 4to, 

Bleininger's Manufacture of Hydraulic Cement. (In Preparation.) 

* Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 

Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering 8vo, 

Byrne's Highway Construction 8vo, 

Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction. 

i6mo, 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 

Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. 

Vol. I. Kinematics, Statics, Kinetics Small 4to, 7 50 

VoL n. The Stresses in Framed Structures, Strength of Materials and 

Theory of Flexures Small 4to, : 

♦Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters 8vo, 

Stone and Clay Products used in Engineering. (In Preparation.) 

Fowler's Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 

Graves's Forest Mensuration Svo, 

Green's Principles of American Forestry i2mo, 

* Greene's Structural Mechanics Svo, 

Holly and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments and Varnishes 

Large i2mo, 

Johnson's Materials of Construction Large Svo, 

Keep's Cast Iron Svo, 

Kidder's Architects and Builders* Pocket-book i6mo, 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics Svo, 

Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles . , i2mo, 

Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 2 vols Svo, 

Maurer's Technical Mechanics Svo, 

Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration Svo, 

Merriman's Mechanics of Materials Svo, 

* Strength of Materials i2mo, 

Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users i2mo, 

Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations Svo, 

Rice's Concrete Block Manufacture « . . . . o Svo, 

Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavements , . „ _ . Svo, 

Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction i6mo, mor. , 

* Ries's Clays: Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses Svo, 

Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish Svo, 

♦Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest,,. i2mo, 

Snow's Principal Species of Wood Svo, 

Spalding's Hydraulic Cement i2mo, 

Text-book on Roads and Pavements i2mo, 

Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced . .Svo, 

Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts Svo, 

Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy Svo, 

Part II. Iron and Steel Svo, 

Part ni. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 

Constituents Svo, 

Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials Svo, 

Tumeaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete Construction.. Svo, 
Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and an Appendix on 

the Preservation of Timber Svo, 2 00 

Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and 

Steel 8vo, 4 00 

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RAILWAY ENGINEERING. 

Andrews's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers 3x5 inches, mor. i 25 

Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to, 5 00 

Brooks's Handbook of Street Railroad Location i6mo, mor. i 50 

Butt's Civil Engineer's Field-book i6mo, mor. 2 50 

Crandall's Railway and Other Earthwork Tables . 8vo, i 50 

Transition Curve i6mo, mor. i 50 

* Crockett's Methods for Earthwork Computations. 8vo, i 5a 

Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book i6mo, mor. 5 00 

Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (iSyg) Paper, 5 00 

Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 25 

Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers' Guide. . . i6mo, mor. 2 50 
Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Em- 
bankments 8vo, I 00 

Ives and Hilts's Problems in Surveying, Railroad Surveying and Geodesy 

i6mo, mor. i 50 

Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers i6mo, i 00 

Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers i6mo, mor. 3 00 

Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers i6mo, mor. 3 00 

Raymond's Railroad Engineering. 3 volumes. 

Vol. I. Railroad Field Geometry. (In Preparation.) 

Vol. II. Elements of Railroad Engineering 8vo, 3 5a 

Vol III. Railroad Engineer's Field Book. (In Preparation.) 

Searles's Field Engineering i6mo, mor. 3 00 

Railroad Spiral i6mo, mor. i 50 

Taylor's Prismoidal Formulae and Earthwork 8vo, i 5a 

♦Trautwine's Field Practice of Laying Out Circular Curves for Railroads. 

i2mo. mor, 2 5a 

* Method of Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Embank- 

ments by the Aid of Diagrams 8vo, 2 oa 

Webb's Economics of Railroad Construction Large i2mo, 2 50 

Railroad Construction i6mo, mor. 5 oo 

Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways Small 8vo, 5 00 

DRAWING. 

Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 

* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 

* " " •• Abridged Ed 8vo, 

Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper, 

Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engi- 
neers Oblong 4to, 

Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 

Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications 8vo, 

Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, 

Jamison's Advanced Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 

Elements of Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 

Jones's Machine Design: 

Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 

Part n. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts. 8vo, 

MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 

Kinematics ; or. Practical Mechanism 8vo, 

Mechanical Drawing. 4to, 

Velocity Diagrams , 8vo, 

McLeod's Descriptive Geometry Large i2mo, 

* Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting 8vo, 

Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo, 

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Moyer*s Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 

Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, 

Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 

Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo, 

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism Svo, 

Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism Svo, 

Smith's (R. S.) Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) Svo, 

Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design Svo, 

* Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing Oblong Svo, 

'barren's Drafting Instruments and Operations i2mo, 

Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective Svo, 

Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing Svo, 

Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing. . . i .2mo, 

General Problems of Shades and Shadows Svo, 

Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Form and 

Shadow i2mo. 

Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing i2mo, 

Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry i2mo, 

Problems, Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry Svo, 

Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Hermann and 

Klein.) Svo, 

Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying Svo, 

Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Lettering : Svo, 

Free-hand Perspective Svo, 

Woolf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry Large Svo, 

ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS. 

* Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation, (von Ende.) i2mo, 

Andrews's Hand-Book for Street Railway Engineering, ... .3X5 inches, mor., 

Anthony and Brackett's Text-hook of Physics. (Magie.) Large i2mo, 

Anthony's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical Measurements. . . . i2mo, 
Benjamin's History of Electricity Svo, 

Voltaic Cell Svo, 

Betts's Lead Refining and Electrolysis Svo, 

Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.).Svo, 

* Collins's Manual of Wireless Telegraphy i2mo, 

Mor. 
Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph Svo, 

* Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.). i2mo, 

Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pockei-book. . . . .i6mo, mor 
Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery), (von Ende.) 

i2mo, 

Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.) Svo, 

Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power i2mo, 

Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay.) Svo, 

* Hanchett's Alternating Currents i2mo, 

Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, mor. 

Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.) 
Holman's Precision of Measurements Svo, 

Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests. . . .Large Svo, 

* Karapetoff's Experimental Electrical Engineering Svo, 

Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-current Machines Svo, 

Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) Svo, 

Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard — Burgess.) i2mo. 
Lob's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) Svo, 

* Lyndon's Development and Electrical Distribntion of Water Power . . . .Svo, 

* Lyons*3 Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II. Svo, each, 

* Michie's Elements of Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light Svo, 

11 



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Morgan's Outline of the Theory of Solution and its Results i2mo, i oo 

* Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers i2mo, i 50 

Niaudet's Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries. (Fishback). . . . i2mo. 2 50 

* Norris's Introduction to the Study of Electrical Engineering 8vo, 2 50 

* Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design 4to, half morocco, 12 50 

Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition. 

Large i2mo, 3 50 

* Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee — Kinzbrunner.). . .8vo, 2 00 

Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. 1 8vo, 2 50 

S::happer's Laboratory Guide for Students in Physical Chemistry i2mo, i 00 

Thurston's Stationary Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50 

* Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat 8vo, i 50 

Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics Large 12 mo, 2 00 

Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining , Svo, 3 00 

LAW. 

* Davis's Elements of Law 8vo, 2 50 

* Treatise on the Military Law of United States 8vo, 7 00 

* Sheep, 7 50 

* Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of Courts-martial . . . .Large 12 mo, 2 50 

Manual for Courts-martial i6mo, mor. i 50 

Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 00 

Sheep, 6 50 

Law of Contracts . 8vo, 3 00 

Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi- 
tecture Svo 5 00 

Sheep, 5 50 
MATHEMATICS. 

Baker's Elliptic Functions ,. Svo, i 50 

Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry. (Bocher) i2mo, i 00 

* Buchanan's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry Svo, i 00 

Byerley's Harmonic Functions Svo, i 00 

Chandler's Elements of the Infinitesimal Calculus i2mo, 2 00 

Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations i2mo, i 50 

Davis's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra Svo, i 50 

* Dickson's College Algebra Large i2mo, i 50 

* Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations Large i2mp, i 25 

Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications Svo, 2 50 

Fiske's Functions of a Complex Variable Svo, i 00 

Halsted's Elementary Synthetic Geometry Svo, i 50 

Elements of Geometry Svo, i 75 

* Rational Geometry , i2mo, i 50 

Hyde's Grassmann's Space Analysis Svo, i 00 

* Jonnson's Cj B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket size, paper, 15 

100 copies, 5 00 

* Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8 X 10 inches, 25 

10 copies, 2 00 
Johnson's (W. W.) Abridged Editions of Differential and Integral Calculus 

Large i2mo, i voL 2 50 

Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates i2mo, i 00 

Differential Equations Svo, i 00 

Elementary Treatise on Differential Calculus. (In Press.) 

nice lentary Treatise on the Integral Calculus Large i2mo> i 50 

* Theoretical Mechanics i2mo, 3 00 

Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares i2mo, i 50 

Treatise on Differential Calculus .Large i2mo, 3 00 

Treatise on the Integral Calculus. Large i2mo, 3 00 

Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations. . Large 121110, 3 50 

12 



iaplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory. ).i2mo, 2 00 

* Ludlow and Bass's Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other 

Tables 8vo, 3 00 

Trigonometry and Tables published separately Each, 2 00 

* Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables . 8vo, i 00 

Macfarlane's Vector Analysis and Quaternions 8vo, i 00 

McMahon's Hyperbolic Functions 8vo, i 00 

Manning's IrrationalNumbers and their Representation bySequences and Series 

i2mo, I 25 
Mathematical Monographs. Edited by Mansfield Merriman and Robert 

S. Woodward Octavo, each i 00 

No. I. History of Modern Mathematics, by David Eugene Smith. 
No. 2. Synthetic Projective Geometry, by George Bruce Halsted. 
No'. 3. Determinants, by Laenas Gifford Weld. No. 4. Hyper- 
bolic Functions, by James McMahon. No, 5. Harmonic Func- 
tions, by William E. Byerly. No. 6. Grassmann's Space Analysis, 
by Edward W. Hyde. No. 7. Probability and Theory of Errors, 
by Robert S. Woodward. No. 8. Vector Analysis and Quaternions, 
by Alexander Macfarlane. No. 9. Differential Equations, by 
William Woolsey Johnson. No. 10. The Solution of Equations, 
by Mansfield Merriman. No. 11. Functions of a Complex Variable, 
by Thomas S. Fiske. 

Ittaufer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00 

Merilman's Method of Least Squares 8vo, 2 00 

Solution of Equations 8vo, i 00 

Rice and Johnson's Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols, in one. 

Large i2mo, i 50 

Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus Large i2mo, 3 00 

Smith's History of Modern Mathematics 8vo, i 00 

* Veblen and Lennes's Introduction to the Real Infinitesimal Analysis of One 

Variable 7 8vo, 2 00 

* Waterbury's Vest Pocket Hand-Book of Mathematics for Engineers. 

2iX 51 inches, mor., i 00 

Weld's Determinations 8vo, i co 

Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry 8vo, 2 00 

Woodward's Probability and Theory of Errors 8vo, i po 

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 

MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS. 

Bacon's Forge Practice i2mo, i 50 

Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings i2mo, 2 50 

Bair's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50 

* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 3 00 

* " " ** Abridged Ed 8vo, 150 

Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes i2mo, 2 00 

* Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal 8vo, 3 50 

Carpenter's Experimental Engineering 8vo, 6 00 

Heating and Ventilating Buildings 8vo, 4 00 

Clerk's Gas and Oil Engine Large i2mo, 4 00 

Compton's First Lessons in Metal Working i2mo, i 50 

Compton and De Groodt's Speed Lathe 12mo, i 50 

Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper, i 00 

Ccolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical En- 
gineers Oblong 4to, 2 50 

Cromwell's Treatise on Belts and Pulleys i2mo, 1 50 

Treatise on Toothed Gearing i2mo, i 50 

Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 00 

13 



Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power, i2mo, 

Rope Driving i2mo, 

Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers i2mo, 

GossV, Locomotive Sparks 8vo, 

Hall's Car Lubrication iimo, 

Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, mor., 

Hobart and Eliis's High Speed Dynamo Electric Machinery. (In Press.) 

Hutton's Gas Engine. 8vo, 

Jamison's Advanced Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 

Elements of Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 

Jones's Machine Design: 

Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 

Part IL Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 

Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-book i6mo, mor , 

Kerr's Power and Power Transmission 8vo, 

' Leonard's Machine Shop Tools and Methods 8vo, 

* Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean.) . . 8vo, 
MacCord's Kinematics; or. Practical Mechanism 8vo, 

Mechanical Drawing 4to, 

Velocity Diagrams 8vo, 

MacFarland's Standard Reduction Factors for Gases 8vo, 

Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo, 

* Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design Small 4to, half leather, 

Peele's Compressed Air Plant for Mines. (In Press.) 

Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels 8vo, 

* Porter's Engineering Reminiscences, 1855 to 1882 8vo, 

Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 

Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo, 

Richard's Compressed Air i2mo, 

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 

Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 

Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals 8vo, 

Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design 8vo, 

Sorel ' s Carbureting and Combustion in Alcohol Engines . (Woodward and Preston) . 

Large 12 mo, 

Thurston's Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics. 

i2mo. 
Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill Work... 8vo, 

Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor i6mo, 

mor., 

* Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing Oblong 8vo, 

Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 

* Waterbury's Vest Pocket Hand Book of Mathematics for Engineers. 

21X51 inches, mor., 
Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann — 

Klein.) 8vo, 

Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann — Klein.). .8vo, 

Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 

Wood's Turbines 8vo, 

MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. 

* Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures. 8vo, 

Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering 8vo, 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 

* Greene's Structural Mechanics 8vo, 

HoUey and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments, and Varnishes. 

Large i2mo, 

Johnson's Materials of Construction 8vo, 

Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 

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IMaire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles i2mo, 2 00 

Hartens*s Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 8vo, 7 50 

jyiaurer*s Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00 

Merriman's Mechanics of Materials. .^ 8vo, 5 00 

"* Strength of Materials i2mo, i 00 

Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users i2mo, 2 00 

Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish Svo, 3 00 

Smith's Materials of Machines i2mo, i 00 

Thurston's Materials of Engineering 3 vols., Svo, 8 00 

Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering, see Civil Engineering, 
page 9. 

Part II. Iron and Steel Svo, 3 50 

Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 

Constituents Svo, 2 50 

Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics Svo, 3 00 

Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an Appendix on the 

Preservation of Timber Svo, 2 00 

Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and ElectrolysiF of Iron and 

Steel Svo, 4 00 

STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS. 

Berry's Temperature-entropy Diagram i2mo, 1 25 

Carnot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat (Thurston.) i2mo, i 50 

Chase'^ Art of Pattern Making i2mo, 2 50 

Creighton's Steam-engine and other Heat-motors. . Svo, 500 

Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. . . .i6mo, mor., 5 00 

Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers iSmo, i 00 

Goss's Locomotive Performance Svo, 5 00 

Hemenway's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy i;2mo, 2 00 

Button's Heat and Heat-engines Svo. 5 00 

Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants Svo, 5 00 

Kent's Steam boiler Economy Svo, 4 00 

Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector Svo, i 50 

MacCord's Slide-valves Svo, 2 00 

Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4to, 10 00 

Moyer's Steam Turbines. (In Press.) 

Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator i2mo, 1 50 

Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other Vapors. Svo, i 00 

Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines Svo, 5 00 

Valve-gears for Steam-engines Svo, 2 50 

Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers Svo, 4 00 

Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator Large Svo, 2 50 

Pupin's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors. 

(Osterberg.) i2mo, i 25 

Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition. 

Large i2mo, 3 50 

Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management i2mo, 2 00 

Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice i2mo, 2 50 

Snow's Steam-boiler Practice Svo, 3 00 

Spangkr's Notes on Thermodynamics i2mo, i 00 

Yalve-gears Svo, 2 50 

Spaagler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering Svo, 3 00 

Thomas's Steam-turbines Svo, 4 00 

Thurston's Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indi- 
cator and the Prony Brake Svo, 5 00 

Handy Tables Svo, i 50 

Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction, and Operation..8vo, 5 00 

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Thurston's Manual of the Steam-engine 2 vols., 8vo, 10 oo 

Part I. History, Structure, and Theory 8vo, 6 oa 

Part II. Design, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 6 00 

Stationary Steam-engines Svo, 2 50 

Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice 12mo, i so 

Wehrenfenning*s Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-water (Patterson) 8vo, 4 oq 

Weisbach's Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 00 

Whitham's Steam-engine Design 8vo, 5 00 

Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines. . .8vo, 4 00 

MECHANICS PURE AND APPLIED. 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering Svo, 6 00 

Notes and Examples in Mechanics Svo, 2 00 

Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for Colleges and Schools. .i2mo, i 50 
Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanics: 

Vol. I. Kinematics Svo, 3 50 

Vol. II. Statics Svo, 4 00 

Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I Small 4to, 7 50 

Vol. II Small 4to, 10 00 

* Greeners Structural Mechanics Svo, 2 50 

James's Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics of a Particle. 

Large 12mo, 2 00 

* Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics 12mo, 3 00 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics Svo, 7 50 

* Martin's Text Book on Mechanics, Vol. I, Statics 12mo, i 25 

* Vol. 2, Kinematics and Kinetics . .i2mo, 1 50 
Maurer's Technical Mechanics Svo, 4 00 

* Merriman's Elements of Mechanics 12mo, i 00 

Mechanics of Materials Svo, 5 00 

* Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics .Svo, 4 00 

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism Svo, 3 00 

Sanborn's Mechanics Problems Large 12mo, i 50 

Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism Svo, 3 00 

Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics Svo, 3 00 

Principles of Elementary Mechanics 12mo, i 25 

MEDICAL. 

Abderhalden*s Physiological Chemistry in Thirty Lectures. (Hall and Defren). 

(In Press), 
von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.) i2mo, 

* Bolduan's Immune Sera i2mo, 

Davenport's Statistical Methods with Special Reference to Biological Varia- 
tions i6mo, mor., 

Ehrlich's Collected Studies on Immunity. (Bolduan.) Svo, 

* Fischer's Physiology of Ahmentation Large i2mo, cloth, 

de Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and Collins.) Large i2mo, 

Hammarsten's Text-book on Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.) Svo, 

Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological Chemistry. ..Svo, 

Lassar-Cohn's Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.) i2mo, 

Mandel's Hand Book for the Bic-Chemical Laboratory i2mo, 

* Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine. (Fischer.) . . . , i2mo, 

* Pozzi-Escot's Toxins and Venoms and their Antibodies. (Cohn.) i2mo, 

Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.) i2mo, 

Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions Svo, 

Whys in Pharmacy i2mo, 

Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff.) Svo, 

* Satterlee's Outlines of Human Embryology i2mo, 

Smith's Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students Svo, 

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Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog •. . . ,8vo, 3 50 

* Whipple's Typhoid Fever Large i2mo, 3 00 

WoodhuU's Notes on Military Hygiene i6mo, i 50 

* Personal Hygiene i2mo, i 00 

Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals Establishment and Maintenance, 

and Suggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans for a Small 

Hospital i2mo, i 25 

METALLURGY. 

Betts's Lead Refining by Electrolysis 8vo. 4 00 

Bolland's Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms Used 

in the Practice of Moulding i2mo, 3 00 

Iron Founder 12mo. 2 50 

* ' " Supplement l2mo, 2 50 

Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects i2mo, i 00 

Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book , . . . . i6mo, mor. 3 00 

* Iles's Lead-smelting • 12mo, 2 50 

Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 

Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard — Burgess.) 12mo, 3 00 

Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users 12mo, 2 00 

Miller's Cyanide Process 12mo i 00 

Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.). . . . 12mo, 2 50 

Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.) 8vo, 4 00 

Ruer's Elements of Metallography. (Mathewson). (In Press.) 

Smith's Materials of Machines . 12mo, i 00 

Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts Svo, 8 00 

part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering, see Civil Engineering, 
page 9. 

Part H. Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50 

Part HI. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and tneir 

Constituents Svo, 2 50 

Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 00 

West's American Foundry Practice l2mo, 2 50 

Moulders Text Book 12mo, 2 50 

Wilson's Chlorination Process 12mo, i 50 

Cyanide Processes 12mo, i 50 

MINERALOGY. 

Barringer's Description of Minerals of Commercial Value. Oblong, morocco, 2 50 

Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia. Svo 3 00 

Boyd's Map of Southwest Virginia Pocket-book form. 2 00 

♦Browning's Introdnction to the Rarer Elements Svo, i 50 

Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.) Svo, 4 00 

Butler's Pocket Hand-Book of Minerals 16mo, mor. 3 00 

Chester's Catalogue of Minerals Svo, paper, i 00 

Cloth, I 25 
Crane ' s Gold and Silver . (In Press . ) 

Dana's First Appendix to Dana's New " System of Mineralogy. .**. .Large Svo, i 00 

Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography. i2mo 2 no 

Minerals and How to Study Them i2mo, i 50 

System of Mineralogy Large Svo, half leather, 12 50 

Text-book of Mineralogy .Svo, 4 00 

Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects .i2mo, i 00 

Eakle's Mineral Tables 8vo, i 25 

Stone and Clay Products Used in Engineering. (In Preparation). 

Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms Svo, 2 50 

Goesel's Minerals and Metals : A Reference Book i6mo. mor. 3 00 

Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall) i2mo, i 25 

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* Iddings's Rock Minerals 8vo, 5 00 

Johannsen's Determination of Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections 8vo, 4 00 

* Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe. i2nio, 60 
Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses 8vo, 4 00 

Stones for Building and Decoration .. 8vo, 500 

* Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests. 

Svo, paper, 50 
Tables of Minerals, Including the Use of Minerals and Statistics of 

Domestic Production Svo, i 00 

Pirsson's Rocks and Rock Minerals. (In Press.) 

* Richards's Synopsis of Mineral Characters i2mo, mor. i 25 

* Ries's Clays: Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses Svo, 5 00 

* Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks .Svo, 2 00 

MINING. 

* Beard's Ivline Gases and Explosions Large i2mo, 

Boyd's Map of Southwest Virginia Pocket-book torm^ 

Resources of Southwest Virginia Svo, 

Crane's Gold and Silver. (In Press.) 

Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects i2mo, 

Eissler's Modern High Explosives S~o- 

Goesel's Minerals and Metals : A Reference Book . . , , i6mo, mor. 

Ihlseng's Manual of Mining Svo, 

* Iles's Lead-smelting i2mo, 

Miller's Cyanide Process i2mo, 

O'DriscoJl's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores Svo, 

Peele ' s Compressed Air Plant for Mines . ( I n Pr e= s. ) 

Riemer's Shaft Sinking Under Difficult Conditions. (Coming and Peele) . . . Svo, 

Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc). .Svo, 

* Weaver's Military Explosives Svo, 

Wilson's Chlorination Process i2mo, 

Cyanide Processes i2mo, 

Hydraulic and Placer Mining. 2d edition, rewritten i2mo, 

Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation i2mo, 

SANITARY SCIENCE. 

Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, Hartford Meeting, 

1906 ^ Svo, 

Jamestov7n Meeting, 1907 Svo, 

* Bashore's Outlines of Practical Sanitation 12mo, 

Sanitation of a Country House 12mo, 

Sanitation of Recreation Camps and Parks 12mo, 

Polwell's Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.) Svo, 

Water-supply Engineering Svo, 

Fowler's Sewage V/orks Analyses IZmo, 

Fuertes's Water-filtration Works 12mo, 

Water and Public Health 12mo, 

Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection 16mo, 

* Modem Baths and Bath Houses Svo, 

Sanitation of Public Buildings 12mo, 

Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It Large 12mo, 

Filtration of Public Water-supplies Svo, 

Kinnicut, Winslovr and Pratt's Purification of Sewage. (In Press. ) 

Leach's Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State 

Control Svo, 

Jjlason's Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological) 12mo, 

Water-supply. (Considered principally from a Sanitary Standpoint) . . Svo, 

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* Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering 8vo, 2 OO' 

Ogden's Sewer Design l2mo, 2 oo* 

Parsoiis's Disposal of Municipal Refuse 8vo, 2 00 

Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacterielogy, with Special Refer- 
ence to Sanitary Water Analysis 12mo, i 50 

* Price's Handbook on Sanitation 12mo, i 50 

Richards's Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries 12mo, i 00 

Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science i2mo, i 00 

Cost of Shelter 12mo, i 00 

* Richards and Williams's Dietary Computer 8vo, i 50 

Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand- 
point 8vo, 2 00 

Rideal's Disinfection and the Preservation of Food 8vo, 4 00 

Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo , 4 00 

Soper's Air and Ventilation of Subways. (In Press.) 

Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 00 

Venable's Garbage Crematories in America 8vo, 2 00 

Method and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage 8vo, 3 00 

Ward and Whipple ' s Freshwater Biology . (In Press . ) 

Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 3 50 

* Typhod Fever Large 12mo, 3 00 

Value of Pure Water Large 12mo, i 00 

Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods 8vo, 7 50 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Emijions's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the 

International Congress of Geologists Large 8vo, 

Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds 8vo, 

Fitzgerald's Boston Machinists i8mo, 

Gannett's Statistical Abstract of the World 24mo, 

Haines's American Railway Management 12mo, 

* Hanusek's The Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton) Svo, 

Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 1824-1894. 

Large i2mo, 

Rotherham's Emphasized New Testament „. Large Svo, 

Standage's Decoration of Wood, Glass, Metal, etc 12mo, 

Thome's Structural and Physiological Botany. (Bennett) 16mo, 

Westermaier's Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider) Svo, 

Winslow's Elements of Applied Microscopy 12mo, 



HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS. 

Green's Elementary Hebrew Grammar i2mo, 1 25; 

Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures. 

(Tregeiles.) Small 4to, half morocco, 5 00 

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SEP 18 1308 



